Seraphinite Properties

The mica inclusions give the stone wonderful chatoyancy. The inclusions grow at different lengths, the longer ones give that feather appearance. Other times you get shorter growth patterns in rows that give the mystic forest appearance. The radial growth patterns in this stone are more highly sought after and make for beautiful designs in cabochons.

Finding Seraphinite

Although seraphinite is getting rather scarce to find, it is still available for sale at shows and online. Most of the time you can easily see what you’re getting, as the patterns will be quite visible on the outside. If you are looking for certain patterns and a higher grade, buying pre-cut slabs is the way to go. If you have never cut seraphinite before, know there are some pitfalls with this material. It’s soft and can easily break in the trimming or cabbing process. It also has varying hardnesses, so it can tend to undercut, as well as easily chip on the edges.

Cutting to Enhance the Patterns

When getting started on cutting slabs, there is a general direction to cut. Most of the time you will see radial or partial radial sprays at the bottom portion of the stone. That will give you a grasp of what is top and bottom, so you can cut north to south for your slabs. This will yield the best chatoyant patterns in the stone. I would also suggest cutting your slabs a slight bit thicker than the average stone because of its softness.

This gives you greater odds against it breaking in the cabbing process. Once your slabs are cut, many times you will get two predominant patterns for design. The top portion usually has smaller feather patterns that are tight together. The bottom portion will give you more radial sprays and longer feathery designs. Both sections are great to design cabs with but remember that the solid green areas are harder than the mica inclusions, and will tend to undercut. The lighter the color, the softer that portion.

Cabbing Seraphinite

Once your preforms are trimmed out and you are ready to cab, I would suggest a different routine than cabbing agates or jaspers. I like to start on a worn 80-grit steel wheel, or a 140-grit soft resin, as this material tends to grind away super easily and quickly. Use a soft touch to shape your outside design, then move to a 140-grit or even the 280-grit soft resin wheel to dome the top and clean up your edges and girdle on the cab.

Remember, the lighter the color, the softer it is, so beware when trying to cab thin cabs or long pointy cabs, it can break easily!

Once you have completed shaping and doming the cab on the 280-grit wheel, stop and dry it off thoroughly and be sure you have removed all the scratches by this point. With the mica inclusions running in a certain direction, you will easily see if there are any scratches, as they will stand out going against the feathery sprays.

From this point, start polishing gently on the 600-grit wheel, trying not to put too much pressure on the surface to alleviate any unwanted undercutting. Continue to the 1200 grit wheel and end on either the 3k grit or 8k grit wheel. At this point, it will give you a nice glossy finish where no added polishing compounds are needed.

This story about seraphinite previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Russ Kaniuth.

The post Seraphinite – What to Cut first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Although most people know this material for its beautiful blue color, it also can be found in pink and violet. Dumortierite can be found in various places across the globe, and at times, has been mistaken for sodalite, or lapis lazuli. Some variations that have gorgeous fibrous dumortierite sprays inside quartz crystals are rare. These tend to be very small pieces, usually ranging from one to five carats. Dumortierite is a good material for lapidary beginners to get hands-on experience. It’s available almost anywhere rocks are sold in a good variety of colors and patterns. It’s fairly hard, usually about seven to eight on the Mohs scale. It also cuts fairly easily.

Tips for Buying Dumortierite

When buying Dumortierite rough, the colors usually show on the outside, but it can have a thin brown rind that can be chipped away to expose the inner color. Many times the blues can be mottled with a lot of white. If a certain hue of blue or continual color throughout is needed, it’s best to buy slabs to be certain.

Cutting Rough Dumortierite

When starting out cutting rough, there is no certain direction to load the saw. This is helpful so that it can be loaded in a way that best fits the vice and yield the most material by cutting straight across the entire stone in one direction. Once the slabs are cut, there generally aren’t many fractures in this material. However, it’s always best to bench test before marking up the slabs for preform designs. Either flex the slab in hand to see if it’s stable or lightly tap it against the workbench or ground to see if there are any hidden fractures. This helps to avoid breaking while in the middle of trimming out cab shapes.

Cabbing Dumortierite

Once the preforms are cut and ready for cabbing, be sure to have a dry towel or canned air available to check for scratches along the way. Since towels get damp in a hurry and canned air can start getting expensive, one suggestion is to get a five-gallon air tank with a spray nozzle. It can be continually filled up by a personal air compressor or by a nearby gas station and it will last for quite a while.

Dumortierite tends to quickly show heavy white marks if scratches are still present. I suggest starting on an 80-grit steel wheel to shape and dome cabs and moving to either a 60-grit soft resin wheel or 140 soft resin. This material is fairly hard, so it will take a bit of time to smooth it out and remove all the scratches from the 80-grit wheel. Be sure to dry off occasionally and see if any white scratches are showing.

From this point, move on to the 280-grit soft resin wheel. A white or pale blue haze across the cab is to be expected, but not scratches. Make sure no scratches exist before moving forward. From this point, it’s fair routine to continue cabbing to the 600 grit, all the way up to the 14k grit soft resin wheels.

Finishing Gloss

A 50k grit polishing wheel works great to get an added high-luster gloss. Unless going slow in short increments, it’s not suggested to use polishing compounds on this material. Also, be sure not to allow the material to heat up too much. It can tend to fracture with heat.

This story about dumortierite previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Russ Kaniuth.

The post Dumortierite: What to Cut first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Starting a Rock Store

Isobel Medley was an only child and was raised in the early 1920s on a prairie farm in Carberry, Manitoba. She attended a one-room school with one teacher for first through 12th-grade students. Isobel developed a strong interest in rocks and geology in those formative years. She eventually moved to Vancouver, British Columbia. In 1945 she married Al, for whom she waited eight years for his return from the War. She became the mother of three children while studying geology. Her love of rocks ultimately inspired her to open a rock store.

The Fraser Rock Shop opened in 1960 and it became the place her daughter Velma spent most of her childhood every day after school. Velma holds many fond memories of her experiences there. For instance, the original shop was located next to a Chinese market – one that Velma frequented when the fresh produce was being delivered. She remembers the shop had an apartment upstairs and she often played with children who lived there.

Quickly though, the shop grew and needed more space. Isobel had visions of a larger shop and space to teach classes. Velma recalls that this move, also on Fraser Street, brought the shop closer to her middle and high school. Growing up in a rock shop, Velma developed skills that helped her throughout her life – listening, providing for each customer, public speaking, asking questions and developing relationships that lead to lasting clients. In those years, Velma didn’t realize just what a skilled lapidary her mother was.

Isobel was a lifelong learner and pursued lapidary skills that reflected her expertise and experience, and Velma learned those same skills.

A Family Affair

The Fraser Rock Shop may have been Isobel’s brainchild, but it was really a family affair. Velma recalls her father Al being an active part of shop operations. He was a career business agent and traveled during the week, but on weekends he was involved in cutting larger rocks — Brazilian agates, jades and petrified woods to name a few. Eventually, their mutual interest led Al to purchase a jade mine with a partner. Helicopters were needed to fly to the Birkenhead Jade Mine in the interior of British Columbia where huge, on-site saws were used by her father to cut pieces of jade which were later sold in the rock store.

Velma recalls that family vacations included spending time rock hunting. “It didn’t matter what direction we were traveling; we were always looking for rocks,” Velma explained. She still has a jar of opals she collected in Mexico on a family adventure. Trips also provided insights into how stonework was done in other parts of the world. For example, Velma remembers antiquated tools in use in Mexico and a stunning European trip where they observed rocks being cut by lapidary artists lying on their stomachs.

Rock Store Adventures

Growing up in the rock shop seemed natural to Velma. She didn’t realize how uniquely special it was until high school. Velma had many wonderful experiences working alongside her mom. For instance, she recalls her mom announcing her participation in a local children’s television program called “Show and Tell.” Her mom thought it would be a great experience for her and suggested she speak about thunder eggs.

Thundereggs are found in Oregon and are formed in rhyolite lava. Customers to the shop found them to be interesting – and would choose one to cut with a diamond blade saw to reveal their internal patterns and colors. “I was feeling mortified, scared and nervous,” Velma said. “Mom stayed focused on the positives and I being obedient and not wanting to let her down, agreed to participate.” While Velma doesn’t remember the filming beyond the gentleman who took her through it, the experience was an opportunity to learn and grow.

Another time Velma recalled waiting on a young, handsome man with curly blond hair. He wanted to have a special pendant made for his fiancé at the time. Her mother cut and polished the stone, setting it to his preselected settings. Later they learned that this young man was the Canadian musician Terry Jacks, famous for the song Seasons in the Sun.

Developing Clients

Slowly, Velma developed clients of her own. She worked for a visually impaired gentleman who paid her to polish the stones he would give as gifts. Velma’s mother tasked her with teaching a legally blind girl to shape cabochons on the grinder. This was a good challenge because it’s easy for a sighted person to grind away a layer or two of skin!

“There was a lot of activity in the rock shop, so it was fun being there,” Velma said. Not only were there classes for adults and youth, but often people came in and rented equipment by the hour. People renting equipment for .35 cents an hour always had her mom as a resource while polishing and cutting stones. The shop was a hub for rock club events, students of all ages and anyone interested in learning about rocks.

Lifetime Achievements

“I do admire the sense of achievement my parents shared throughout their lives,” Velma declared. “The joy of work for us, I think, could be attributed to all the wonderful people we met, helped, taught and encouraged.”

Velma went on to say that over the years, they had belonged to a couple of different rock clubs building life-long friendships that spanned fun annual gatherings, food, games, music and memories which of course included attending rock shows!

“Rockhounds come in all ages,” she added. “Even from prairie farms.”

Rocks for Sale

While Velma was living in Alberta, her parents sold the rock store in the mid-1980s, (or so she thought) only to fully realize after their deaths that they had retained their extensive collection of finished jewelry, cut and uncut stones. Recently, Velma has been working to sell the entire collection.

This story about growing up in a rock store appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Deb Brandt.

The post Growing Up in a Rock Store first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Whether teaming together for all-female outings, or introducing the world of rocks and minerals to the next generation, women bring a new perspective, and sometimes a different approach, to this age-old endeavor.

Following Her Calling

For some rockhounding women, their affinity for interesting finds started at an early age.

“Ever since I’ve been little, I spent time at Crystal Park, (a recreational area in southwestern Montana where natural crystals abound),” said Brianne Scott, founder of the informal group, Rockhounding Women Montana.

Even though rocks were in her DNA from an early age, Scott went another route, instead earning a degree in Elementary Education, but it wasn’t the right fit. “It’s tough to be in the classroom all day long,” she said. So she stepped away from the profession and started collecting more rocks, mostly for the fun of it.

During her excursions around her Butte home, she said, “ There’s one piece that I have that’s a really neat little piece.” She said she spotted it caked in dirt, but discovered it was a combination of feldspar, smoky quartz castle-like structures, and albite, all coated with epidote. “It’s my favorite because of the complexity of it. It’s so unique.”

“I found myself with an overabundance of rocks,” she said, “ That’s how I got introduced to the rockhounding groups in Montana.”

Finding Other Rockhounding Women

Scott also discovered other groups on social media. Being able to trade or buy specimens not found in her area is one benefit of these connections, along with the opportunity to learn from others’ experiences.

“The biggest thing I’ve noticed about rock people is they are so friendly. I really get that sense of community,” Scott noted. “That’s where the lady rockhounding group started. I’ve gone digging with a lot of boys, but wanted to find more women.”

“We did one field trip in the summer. A group of us gals went to Crystal Park and went digging for the day,” she said. Scott is already lining up field trips, as well as learning opportunities for any of the women who want to participate. “It’s knowing what to look for on your hikes.”

Scott loves hanging out with any rock enthusiast, but women’s groups are sometimes less intimidating to new rockhounds. “I noticed a lot of the men are very technical with things,” Scott explained, which isn’t always conducive to a newbie. She believes women have a broader view of the landscape and notice what’s going on around, or in, the ground.

“Really it’s still a good partnership with men and women. It’s just a different dynamic,” she said.

When it comes to women, or really anyone, who wants to step into this fascinating world, Scott’s best advice is, “Reach out to folks. You’ll be able to find someone who is more than willing.”

Teaching the New Generation

While some rockhounding women are born with rocks in their pockets, others grow into it. Becky Weldy, a high school science teacher in Covington, Ohio, said her interest began during her post-graduate work. At that time, Wright State University offered a Master’s Degree program to educate teachers in geology.

“The professor opened my eyes to it,” Weldy said, particularly because the courses were far from mere academic musing with field trips in the Ozarks, Finger Lakes of New York, as well as the east coast of New Jersey.

Now she offers college-level courses in a high school class, enlightening the students to see beyond the textbooks. “I think a lot of the kids don’t seem to travel as much,” noted Weldy who aims to inspire them and bring the outdoors inside through her curriculum.

Field Trips & School

Weldy plans several field trips throughout the academic year, including visiting the Ohio Caverns, which are geological wonders in and of themselves, as well as Caesars Creek State Park in Waynesville. She said the area was developed by the Army Corps of Engineers in 1938 as flood control. The dam formed Caesar Creek Lake, which at 115 feet deep is the deepest in Ohio, and the spillway is rich in fossils such as trilobites and horn corals. This whole area is known throughout the world as a hotspot for geologists. A permit is required, but she turns the day into a multi-course study for her students.

Weldy also strives to bring her geology studies to the school. ”My other big project is behind our football field in eight acres of woods,” she said. Several years ago, teachers began working to turn the area into a working land lab cutting through new trails, spraying out the invasive honeysuckle, and replanting native trees.

Of course, the elementary kids already love exploring the space, plus Weldy incorporates the natural area into her geology classes with her 11th and 12th graders where they’re able to conduct real-world tests.

“It brings it into perspective to see and to touch,” she said. ”It is eye-opening to a lot of them.”

She hopes that even though she didn’t experience the wonders of geology until later in life, her students will have a jump on an appreciation of the rocks and minerals.

Rocks in Her Pockets

Dr. Kerry Griffis-Kyle, Ph.D., is an associate professor teaching classes involving complex ecosystems at Texas Tech University. Throughout her career, Griffis-Kyle primarily focuses on living things, but rocks are what make her happy.

She laughed when remembering her move from Syracuse to the Southwest when the movers picked up a particularly heavy box and wondered what could be in it. It read: “Rocks and Dead Things.”

Griffis-Kyle said, “That’s what it was because I am a biologist!”

The landscape at her home in Lubbock, Texas, is extraordinarily flat so for years she brought home larger specimens to add visual interest. Now that she is delving into the art of rock tumbling, she has shifted her focus.

“With the rock tumbling I’m picking up smaller rocks,” Griffis-Kyle noted. This focus on tumbling also requires a different form of attention. She’s learned to use a flashlight and black light to inspect the stones for structures within them. But she added, “I need to be better at identifying them. Some rocks are toxic. Some have mercury or uranium in them.” She pointed out that rocks with bright yellows and greens are particularly important to identify and handle properly.

Social Media Connections

In this new endeavor, she said that social media connections, especially with rockhounding women, are invaluable, whether it’s choosing the best rocks or specifics on using the tumbler. It’s a combination of art and science where a strong streak of experience goes a long way.

“I’m paying attention more to where the resources are,” Griffis-Kyle noted. When choosing where to camp, rockhounding is at the top of the activity list, and she enjoys visiting New Mexico. She said the state does an excellent job explaining where you can find different rocks and where it’s permissible to keep them.

She pointed out, “State by state you have to pay attention to what is allowed. Most of the time it’s okay to pick up a few rocks for personal use on federal land, but you can’t pick up fossils and artifacts. And never pick up anything on Park Service or DOD (Department of Defense) land.”

Always a scientist at heart, Griffis-Kyle appreciates the geological processes it requires to create colorful and unique specimens, but in the end, she said she looks for rocks because they make her happy. ”It’s kind of like art appreciation. Different things speak to different people.”

Gaining Knowledge in Groups

Although Valerie Steichen brought home rocks throughout her life, it wasn’t until she attended a rock and gem show in Missoula, Montana, that she noticed the long list of field trips hosted by the Hellgate Mineral Society. She was immediately on board.

“ They’re looking for young members,” said Steichen, noting the reality is many people within the group are over 70 years old, a common trend of these types of groups. There are lifetimes of knowledge waiting to be shared with the next generations, which is one of the main reasons Steichen appreciates the group.

“The main reason I go is so I get to walk in the forest with a geologist and learn,” she said. And besides the fieldwork, the club offers numerous educational workshops to keep everyone sharp.

Joining the Men

Whether it’s potentially the older membership and generational differences or an intimidation factor for women who are new to rockhounding, Steichen noted that when they go on field trips, the group is roughly 90 percent men.

But she is quick to allay concerns and encourages rockhounding women, and younger people in general, to join a local mineral or gem hunting group. “All of them are friendly,” she said.

Besides the innate knowledge of the landscape and the minerals found within it, Steichen noted, “What really struck me is their responsibility for nature.” She appreciates the knowledge of how to ethically dig for minerals, which is a growing concern in some regions when, at times, visitors take too much or do not practice Leave No Trace principles. By digging with one of these well-educated groups, new enthusiasts learn how to protect the resources for everyone.

For Steichen, one of her favorite finds is agates, which is the state rock for Montana. “I think I can pick out agate at a mile away. They look like ugly rocks, but they have billions of years of a story to tell,” she said.

And while the finds are beautiful, there are stories behind each one. Steichen said, “I remember where I found the rocks. There are memories to it and it means something.” So whether she is rock hunting with the Mineral Society members or looking for agates with her family, Steichen is the mineral matriarch who passes on this knowledge to anyone who wants to learn.

This story about rockhounding women previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Amy Grisak.

The post Rockhounding Women first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

At an early age, John became curious about his uncle’s line of work, but his queries were often met with vague responses. As an adult, he devoted much time and effort to researching his uncle’s history.

The following is John’s perspective of that history, a few stories of the everyday life of the scientists, plus a quick rundown of naturally occurring radiation, including radioactive rocks, present in our lives today.

Philip Grant Koontz

Uncle Grant met his wife, Florence Eyre while both were undergraduate students at Hastings College in Nebraska where he earned a bachelor’s degree in 1927. He earned a master’s degree from the University of Nebraska before earning his doctorate in physics from Yale.

After graduating, Grant served as an associate professor of physics at Colorado State University. Here is where the history becomes clouded in secrecy. Sometime during Grant’s tenure at Colorado State, he met and assisted Arthur H. Compton on Mt. Evans in his studies of cosmic rays.

In 1942, Grant was asked by Compton to join Enrico Fermi and the other scientists in Chicago at the “Metallurgical Lab,” for the creation of the Chicago Pile (CP-1). Shortly after the Chicago scientists achieved a sustained nuclear reaction, Grant and his family were spirited off to Los Alamos, New Mexico. Now the secrecy was stepped up.

Science, Secrecy & Real People

While both in Chicago and Los Alamos, the scientists worked feverishly on what is now called The Manhattan Project. But as history and several photos handed down through the Eyre family prove, those scientists were real people with families and interests outside of their laboratories. While still in Chicago, Uncle Grant and Aunt Florence hosted a picnic at their home. Family photos show that Enrico Fermi, his wife and young daughter, and a few unidentified scientists attended.

Once at Los Alamos, Grant took photos of several of the scientists collecting selenite in an area outside of the compound. Rockhounding must run in the family! But everyday life was hard for both the scientists and their families. All mail to friends and relatives was sent via a post office box in New York City and was carefully censored to remove any reference as to where they were, what they were doing or even anything about the weather. Grant could never tell his wife where he was going when he disappeared for days while testing bombs at Trinity Site or the Nevada Test Site.

Once some of the secrecy was lifted, Grant liked to tell a story about how he and a few of his fellow scientists discovered a hole in the Los Alamos compound fence. For fun, instead of simply telling the authorities about the security breach, a few scientists took their family dogs for a walk outside the compound. They signed out at the gate, proceeded to the hole in the fence; crawled under the fence and proceeded to sign out at the gate a second and third time before the guard caught on and they finally told him about the hole.

An Atomic Timeline

It’s time to tell the real history of these men. An easy way to do that is by using a timeline of their achievements.

The culmination of all of this work was the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, which effectively ended WWII. Our world was forever changed and the discoveries of these scientists are still present in our day-to-day lives.

Rockhounding

Radioactivity didn’t just appear in our lives with these discoveries, it was always naturally occurring in our rocks and minerals. The most common radioactive minerals found in nature are uranite, thorite, pitchblende and carnotite.

One of the byproducts of atomic bomb testing is “trinitite.” Scientists gave this name to the desert sand which fused into glass caused by the heat of the first atomic bomb test on July 16, 1945, at the Trinity Test Site, outside of Alamogordo, New Mexico. Uncle Grant sent several samples to John’s dad, a chemist who cast them into paperweights made of Lucite plastic.

Radioactive Food, Medicine & Household Items

Probably the most common food containing a radioactive isotope (K-40) of potassium is bananas. Not to worry, you would need to eat 70,000 bananas to get the equivalent radiation of a chest CT scan. Small amounts are also found in potatoes, kidney beans, sunflower seeds or any food containing potassium.

On the other hand, Brazil nuts contain small amounts of radium isotopes approximately 1,000 times higher than those found in other foods. Some salt substitutes contain small amounts of radioactive potassium (K-40).

Many generic brands of antidiarrhea medication contain kaolin clay that has elevated levels of uranium and thorium.

Still, no worries, as you would have to consume over 1,000 pounds a year to exceed the current EPA maximum exposure level. The name brand of this drug has discontinued use of kaolin clay.

Ionization-type smoke detectors contain small quantities of americium-241. Never try to disassemble one of these units.

Kitty litter contains bentonite clay which is measurably radioactive. The contents include uranium, thorium and potassium-40. Also, potassium chloride water softener salt contains measurable amounts of potassium-40. A standard 50-lb. bag would never make it past the highly sensitive radiation monitors used at nuclear power plants.

Radioactive Collectibles

Uranium Glass

Early civilizations used minerals to add color to their glass and pottery. Uranium, or Vaseline glass as it is sometimes called, was not known to be radioactive until 1896. However, some earlier glassware contained radioactive colorants for over 2,000 years. It is usually yellow to green and is fluorescent under UV light. It contains two to 25% uranium oxide and is slightly radioactive.

Uranium glass is collectible and was made into various items from everyday glassware to bowls, knick-knacks and souvenir items. The bowl this author’s grandmother used to make gelatin in every week as well as her special occasion stemware is still a part of our family’s collection.

Orange Fiesta Tableware

Uranium oxide has been added to ceramic glazes for many years to color pieces orange-red. The Homer Laughlin Company used it to produce their bright orange Fiesta tableware from 1936 to 1943. Its use ended in 1943 when the company’s supply of uranium oxide was commandeered by the U.S. government for use in atomic weapon production. To this day, all of these original pieces are fairly radioactive and should NOT be used for food purposes, but only as radioactive collectibles.

Lantern Mantles, Metal Alloys & Welding Rods

Non-nuclear uses of thorium compounds are limited. Thorium oxide is the coating used on gas lantern mantles in older camping lanterns. It’s what causes the lanterns to incandesce at high temperatures. Several types of nickel alloys have thorium oxide added to them to increase their strength.

Thorium oxide is also used as an additive to some tungsten-based welding rods. TIG welding rods are available with a 2% thorium content to help in arc stabilization and are slightly radioactive.

3M Model C-15 Tape Dispensers

Next time you wrap a present, take note of your tape dispenser. If it is old and exceptionally heavy, it may be one of the 3M company dispensers made in the 1970s. These models were filled with monazite sand for ballast. Monazite is a radioactive mineral containing thorium.

More Items

There are more radioactive collectibles than can be listed in detail, but here are just a few more:

• Firestone Brand Polonium Spark Plugs from 1946 to 1953—contain polonium

• Radium watch and clock hands—contain radium

• Glow-in-the-dark gun sights—contain tritium

• Military ballistic projectile penetrators— contain depleted uranium

• Cloisonne jewelry with orange or yellow glaze—contains uranium oxide

• Radio Brand Golf Balls 1910 to 1930— contain radium

• Gilbert Atomic Energy Lab Kit, sold in 1951-1952 as a child’s educational tool, was deemed to be dangerous and taken off the market. They are still available on the internet for upwards of $2,000 to $4,000—contain samples of autunite, carnotite, torbernite & uranite

Plan a Visit

Hands-on learning opportunities about the Manhattan Project and the Atomic Age are available with planned visits to various sites across the U.S. The National Park Service sponsors sites at Los Alamos, Hanford and Oak Ridge. You may want to visit the Bradbury Science Museum in Los Alamos. Special tours of Trinity Site and the Nevada Test Site are available on a limited basis and may require registration and possible security clearance.

Radioactivity has been and always will be present in our world. To the rockhound, if handled and stored properly, radioactive minerals and collectibles can provide an interesting addition to mineral collections.

This story about radioactivity previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Sue Eyre.

The post Radioactivity, Rocks & The Men Who Handled Them first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

The Stone Age

The Stone Age lasted until the end of the Neolithic era when we learned to start using metals and transitioned into the Bronze Age. The Stone Age is three distinct periods recognized by researchers, known as the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic eras. The suffix lithic means “stone.”

Most of the Stone Age occurred within the Ice Age. Early humans hunted the Megafauna of this period such as saber-toothed cats, mammoths, mastodons, giant sloths, giant bison and relatives of the modern deer. Weapons were needed to kill these animals for food, to take their hides for clothes, warmth and protective structures, and to use their bones for numerous purposes.

The Stone Age Eras

The longest of the Stone Age eras was the first. The Paleolithic era lasted just shy of 2.5 million years, ending between 11700 and 9600 BCE. The stone tools and weapons from this era are known as Oldowan and Acheulean. Several cave paintings date back to this era and depict scenes of stone weapons. The end of this period coincides with the end of the ice age.

Middle Stone Age

Dates for the Middle Stone Age, or the Mesolithic era, are harder to pin down. This period represented an advancement in weapon and tool-making skills and is greatly regional since there was not a whole lot of exchanging of ideas and technologies. In some parts of the world, it began as late as 8,000 BCE. Regardless of the exact dates, it was the shortest of the three eras. It is notable though for many advancements in weapon and tool-making skills. Weapons associated with this era were chisel-pointed burins (akin to awls), blades and backed knives, scrapers, cutting tools known as tranchet adzes and multi-purpose tools.

Neolithic Era

The Neolithic era, also the last era, began as early as 8,000 BCE in some parts of the world and ended between 3,000 and 2,700 BCE. This was the last period where humans relied exclusively on stone, bone, antler, or wood weapons and started experimenting with metals. Stonehenge dates back to this period. Agriculture became more prominent during this time and a lot of stone weapons and tools were used for digging and farming. This period saw the rise or continued improvements to adzes, arrows, axes, blades, chisels, and other dual-purpose tools used for digging and striking.

Axes and Knife-like Weapons

Axes were broadly used throughout much of the Stone Age. Axes were useful in close combat, good for clearing a path while in pursuit of their target, but even more so when preparing a kill to be eaten. As the millennia progressed, so too did the shape and sharpness of the stone axes our forebears made. By about 320,000 years ago, axes had evolved from larger, fist-sized axes, to smaller and more sophisticated blades and points. A specific type of ax was developed, known as a “chopper.” This was used for more detailed work such as dividing up meat or cutting into skin and fur.

Blades and scrapers were crafted from smaller, sharper stones than those used typically for axes. There was no uniformity in their overall size or weight. A tribe, clan or family might have several different sizes to be used as each circumstance dictated. When made of obsidian, these blades were especially sharp. As time went forward, and agriculture developed, these would be affixed to longer sticks and become the world’s first scythes.

Projectile Points

Projectile points were used for arrows, spears and harpoons. The traditional arrowhead is among this group. Projectile points were the premium weapons for hunting. Early humans located near water utilized this technology to make harpoons for hunting fish and larger marine life. Evidence suggests that early mankind was adept enough at using harpoons, they could spear larger fish, including swordfish and whales. Rope was attached to the harpoon shaft so the kill could be pulled to shore.

As soon as early humans learned how to create composite tools, they affixed sharpened, triangularly pointed stones onto the end of a wooden shaft and adhered them with sinew or plant fibers. As the handle part of these composite tools has long since decomposed, it can be difficult to know whether a projectile was affixed to an arrow or a spear, so researchers do not make that distinction.

Around 300,000 years ago, humans began to adhere projectile points to sticks via a method known as hafting. This allowed the pointed stone and stick to be a singular weapon, much less cumbersome than previous methods. Skilled weapons makers would use fire and heat to perfect this attachment. Initially, these would have been used for jabbing, until the advent of the Atlatl — a device that evolved into the bow. It acted as an extension of the arm and allowed projectiles to be hurled much farther and faster with more accuracy.

Slingstones

An overlooked category of stone weapons is the sling stone. This is probably because not all sling stones were honed to a particular size or shape. They were potentially used in the form they were found. These first appeared late in the Stone Age. Piles of sculpted, similarly-sized, oval or oblong rocks with pointed ends have been found in parts of the Middle East.

When used in their found form, these are the most rudimentary of weapons. When formed with pointed ends into roughly uniform size, and intended to be flung with some kind of a sling, this evidences great thought and advancement. This allowed for greater accuracy because a formal size could be used for practice. Besides their obvious use in combat or hunting, these sling stones are also thought to have been used to aid herders when controlling predators and steering a flock. Scientists assume this because sling stones are often found in areas where flocks were located.

Multi-Functional Tools & Weapons

As the Stone Age came to a close, early humans became adept at making multi-use weaponry. This makes sense as it reduced the number of things to carry and is evidence of the evolution of stone weapon making. A single stone weapon/tool from the Mesolithic could simultaneously have one side that was used as a knife, one side as a hammer or striking surface, and one side as a scraper. As farming arose, the need to dig into the soil and clear land became important as well.

It was not uncommon for some skilled tool and weapon makers to have actual tool kits of stones to do a variety of tasks. Regional differences have been found suggesting these skills were passed down and that communities had distinct identities or cultures.

This story about the ancient artifacts previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Chris Bond.

The post Ancient Artifacts: Rocks as Weapons first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

This is what artifact hunting is all about – finding ancient tools, weapons and stone pieces that have remained hidden for thousands of years. These implements are often the only evidence remaining of the existence of ancient, complex and highly-functioning cultures that once thrived in North America.

Bits and pieces of chipped flint, granite, jasper and other hard rock can rise to the surface after land is plowed or following a heavy rain, indicating the likely presence of artifacts. Whether located near the water’s edge, in open fields, on mountain ridges, valleys or under overhangs, stone clues reveal locations where ancient family groups lived more than 15,000 years ago.

Artifacts Tell a Story

Granite and other rock artifacts tell the story of early human presence in every section of North America. A variety of rocks were shaped and used as tools. Flint and quartz were fashioned as fire starters. Obsidian and agate were flaked and chipped to be made into knives for blunt instruments such as axes and pestles. Hammerstones and heavier rocks, made of sandstone were ground to useful shapes and implements.

As early cultures traveled along rivers and valleys, cutting across heavily forested land, they continuously manufactured and replenished their rock instruments, chipping and grinding their tools for hunting farming, and cooking.

Hoes, hatchets, awls, drills, scrapers, and spear points as well as small projectiles were fashioned, sharpening and polishing stones, all chipped from rock carefully chosen. These chipping, flaking, carving activities remained unchanged, over thousands of years.

Before getting started, here are nine things to consider to help with finding artifacts and staying safe while doing so.

1. Get a Map

Topographical maps are a basic tool used to study ancient land areas. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been the primary mapping agency of the United States since 1879. At the U.S. Geological Survey website, you can order paper maps showing ancient forests, rivers and mountainous areas.

General-use maps present detailed elevation and contour lines to help with understanding the landscape. State or county libraries are a source for geological surveys.

Ordinance Survey maps are the best-known type of topographical map. It is possible to work out your exact location by following the contours and checking out the landscape around you, identifying landmarks such as lakes and roads. If you know a river that has remained in the same general configuration for a long time, it is a great place to find ancient rock tools since the area is likely to have been inhabited or visited over the millennia. To order any map, go to MyTopo.com.

2. List of Supplies

Things to take with you include a shoulder bag or backpack with bottled water, magnifying glass, hand digger, garden gloves, small brush and a notebook with pen as well as some sort of container with soft wrapping for any rocks you wish to keep. Carrying a fully-charged cell phone is essential for emergency and can be used for image-taking.

Remember to never go hunting alone in unfamiliar places and always let someone know where you will be.

Wear sturdy shoes or boots and a hat for protection from the elements. Carry a walking stick for climbing support, to clear debris or chase away snakes. Watch where you put your hands if you’re working in brush or rocky terrain. A few simple first-aid items are advantageous for cuts and scrapes. Keep spare clothes, extra water and extra shoes in your vehicle.

3. Permission to Search

For most places, receiving permission to hunt is imperative. Study your state laws before you begin to search; not doing so could get you in hot water with State or Federal authorities. Knowing on whose land you are hunting is essential, out of respect for both the land owner and for any original native residents.

If you are considering privately owned land, you will need permission to hunt on it. When you locate a prospective site, find out whether the land is private property. If it is, ask the owner for permission to search. Most landowners are cooperative, but if not, don’t be discouraged, just move on and keep inquiring in the general vicinity you have chosen.

All artifacts belong to the owner, unless you have permission to keep what you find. It is best to approach farmers at a time of year when the land has not been newly seeded or planted and assure them that you will cause no harm and of your appreciation for the opportunity.

4. Areas to Explore

Aside from farmland, sites off the beaten path are always worth a look, even construction sites may yield artifacts. Prehistoric people rarely camped more than a short distance from water and often chose ground that was easily defendable.

Across from what are now state lines, trails and trading paths were created, crisscrossing through forests and rivers, covering large tracts of land. Villages were not only established near river junctions, but on hillsides and valleys. Many artifacts have been found near both small and large waterways. Some examples include corner-notched spear points and fluted points as well as side-notched arrowheads.

By reading about tribes that settled in your area, you can find the most likely locations. Riverbanks, streams and dry ditches can disguise partially hidden artifacts. Dirt banks where implements may have washed off higher ground should be checked. Choose places where the ground has been disturbed or if dirt has been brought in to build or construct any housing areas.

5. Field Clues

When searching, keep your eyes open for chips of stone, regardless of color, size, coarseness or shape. Stone chips are always worth examining. What you see exposed may not be the entire piece. Although there are many stone tools to be found, such as scrapers and hoes, be receptive to the unexpected rocks that catch your eye.

It won’t be long before you develop a sixth sense about whether the rock you are holding had been held by another human hand long before yours. Small chips were further manufactured for knives, awls or gravers. Large rocks should be examined also. Pounders, some hand axes and hoes were not flaked like a typical arrowhead or knife, but were smoother and ground into shape.

6. How Deeply Can You Dig?

Federal law states that you can retrieve any artifact that is lying on the ground’s surface. If an artifact is partially exposed and easily retrieved, you are allowed to collect it. If not, you can carefully dig a certain distance around and beneath the artifact to loosen it. Protect fragile parts by bringing along an attached dirt clod. Rules regarding depth of digging may seem trivial, but they were made to protect sacred grounds, burial sites and evidence of those who lived on the land first.

7. When to Search

The best time of year to search depends on where you live. For northerners, tramping through wooded areas covered in snow would be unproductive. In agricultural areas, fall and very early spring can yield exposed stone artifacts. In western states and the deep south, the time of year may not be as relevant an issue. Check with farmers and landowners about dates and times of clearing the fields and planting seeds. Consider storms, floods and wildlife. Overall, cloudy and overcast days are best for artifact spotting.

8. Rock Types

Study and learn your location’s rock types. Some common artifact materials are quartz, chert, jasper, chalcedony, agate, basalt, granite and flint. Rhyolite is common in the southern states while quartzite is familiar in the southwest. Arrowheads were made out of anything handy, so focusing on particular rock types can lead to overlooking artifacts. Remember, the ancients travelled and traded.

9. Taking Care of Finds

Cleaning and care of artifacts is important as you don’t want to mismanage an ancient piece of art. First, wrap it in a soft cloth to keep it from knocking against another artifact. Rocks are not unbreakable, especially the tip, fashioned point or notched sides of arrowheads. It’s good to separate large pieces from delicate ones.

After returning home, wash pieces with water and use a soft brush to wash away any dirt clumps. Before washing, make sure the drain is closed so any small pieces are not lost.

Once dry, examine your findings carefully. Using an identification guide, set up a journal with columns, listing date, location where found, type of rock, probable use, time period, shape and workmanship. Write a thorough description of the rock. Give each rock an identifying number or symbol that corresponds to the name you have recorded. This is an essential part of artifact collecting and, if not followed, can cause future confusion and unhappiness.

From east to west, north and south, clues to ancient people’s existence continue to surface, and may be found anywhere in North America. Once your eye is trained, you may find artifacts at unexpected times and places, even your own backyard. Artifact hunting can become a life-long source of discovery and yield increasing appreciation of the inventiveness, survival and history of earlier Americans.

Enjoy the hunt!

This story about finding ancient artifacts previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story and photos by Anita B. Stone.

The post 9 Tips for Finding Artifacts first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Minerals are all around us and even within us. Consider iron in your blood or calcium in your bones. While humans have always sought food products, we’ve always used rocks. Our ancestors used cobbles as hammers to crack nuts. We later learned to use obsidian, chert, and flint to knap knives and spear points and to spark fire. We’ve moved on from the Stone Age to the Copper, Bronze, and Iron Ages. Minerals and related earth resources continue to enable contemporary life and the built environment in which we live. They include metals, nonmetallic minerals, and fossil fuels. How little we appreciate this fact of life!

Take the Common Pencil…

Something as simple as a pencil requires more minerals than you might imagine. While a pencil casing is painted wood with a hollow core, the rod within the core is a combination of graphite (carbon) and kaolinite (clay). The more kaolinite, the harder the rod. This is why we have #2, #3, and other pencil grades that leave either a wide dark streak or a slender light streak. While the pencil eraser is a natural or synthetic rubber, it may contain pumice to provide grit. Holding that eraser to the pencil is a tube constructed of aluminum (from bauxite) or brass (from copper plus zinc, or sphalerite). Four to six minerals in a common pencil. Who knew?!

To appreciate the number of minerals used in everyday life, deconstruct other objects. A salt shaker often has an aluminum top (derived from bauxite) and a glass body (from sand, or silicon dioxide) and is filled with salt (halite) crystals. Although it’s on its way out, an old-fashioned incandescent light bulb has a glass exterior (made from silica, soda ash, lime, coal, and salt), a brass or aluminum screw-in base, a tungsten filament, copper and nickel lead-in wires, molybdenum tie and support wires, and an aluminum heat deflector.

Explore Minerals Contributing to the Build Environment

Here are some fun and easy exercises to introduce kids (and yourself ) to the many minerals contributing to our built environment.

Match the Product to the Mineral

An Interactive Display & Quiz

Perfect for a school project…Construct an interactive display showing everyday items at the back and the minerals that went into them at the front. For instance, a soda can at the back and a specimen of bauxite (aluminum ore) at the front, or matches at the back and sulfur at the front. Provide a quiz for kids to fill out to match a mineral to a product.

Spin the Wheel!

For more immediate interactive fun, have a board laid out with squares numbered and stocked with different economic minerals. Kids spin the wheel. They then need to name a product made from a mineral on the number where the wheel lands. If they guess correctly, they keep the mineral. Stick with fairly easy and obvious choices (e.g., a copper nugget matched to plumbing pipes) and have a poster or chart nearby that kids can consult.

The Home Scavenger Hunt

In a school classroom, rock club meeting room, or a home, gather kids around a flipchart, chalkboard, or whiteboard. Encourage them to look around and list everyday things and the rocks and minerals that went into them. If using an old-fashioned chalkboard, you can start with the chalk and the slate of the chalkboard. You might go throughout an entire house, or focus on a particular room.

Here are just a few examples: a brass lamp, windows made of silica, many things made of plastic derived from petrochemicals, fireplace bricks derived from clay (kaolinite), a tin cup, a gold wedding ring, walls made of plasterboard comprised of gypsum, steel nails, and screws in the furniture and paint on the walls containing diatomite as filler.

A Hardware Store Scavenger Hunt

Take a field trip for a scavenger hunt at a hardware store. To get started, here are a few things to seek:

• aluminum and tin siding or roofing (from bauxite or cassiterite)

• bricks and ceramic products (from fired clay, or kaolinite)

• diatomaceous earth for swimming pool filters

• drill bits and saw blades used for cutting tile, concrete, etc. (from diamond)

• electrical wiring, pipes, and plumbing fixtures (from copper)

• glass (from silica sand)

• plaster and drywall (from gypsum)

• rough and crushed rocks and stones for ornamental use (scoria, limestone, marble, etc.)

• sand for mixing with concrete, for sandboxes, etc.

• slabs of various sorts (granite, marble, etc.) for kitchen countertops

• steel and iron nails (made from iron ores like hematite)

Make Your Own Collection

Entire collections can be made of the raw materials of our built environment. Many common minerals are inexpensive and readily available from show dealers. As a start, consider pennies and a copper nugget; nails and hematite; fluorinated toothpaste and a fluorite crystal; laundry detergent and borate minerals; table salt and halite crystals; matches and sulfur.

Learn More!

Several websites provide handy tables linking minerals to everyday objects. Here’s a sampling:

• Minerals Education Coalition

• Women in Mining

• United States Geological Survey (USGS)

• American Geosciences Institute (AGI)

• Gemological Institute of America (GIA)

• National Mining Association

• AFMS Future Rockhounds of America Badge Manual

How Minerals Shape History

As we humans progressed from the Stone Age to the Electronic Age, we’ve seen all sorts of ages in between dominated by a search for earth resources. Consider gold rushes, wars of conquest for mineral-rich colonies, and “titans of industry” (Carnegie, Rockefeller, Peabody, Getty). Our current age is obsessed in a quest for minerals for electric batteries built with lithium, and cobalt. These resources are eagerly being sought to move us from a carbon-emitting petroleum-dependent economy to one based on clean energy.

However, keep in mind that clean electric energy still requires dirty mining. If you think we can get to a so-called no-cost energy future, think again! There will always be a need for mining and minerals, along with a cost to pay. How we ultimately balance such costs is what matters. Think we can live without minerals and all that goes into extracting them? Think again. Think wisely.

What Made It?

Pencils or smartphones are just the beginning. There are thousands of minerals and even more applications of those minerals. Here’s a tiny selected sampling…

This story about the minerals used in everyday life previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Jim Brace-Thompson.

The post Minerals Used in Everyday Life first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

In Montana, gold and silver drew those looking for wealth to these remote realms. In the 1860s, prospectors found a smattering of gold in the waterways, although silver quickly drew more attention. By the following decade, it was silver that launched the mining empire of future moguls, William A. Clark and Marcus Daly, who segued into copper as the silver market cooled.

With technological advancements in mining and smelting, copper gained momentum beginning in the early 1880s. A pivotal moment was when Daly visited a newly blasted shaft in the Anaconda Mine, and after examining the black rocks containing the copper ore chalcocite, he reportedly proclaimed that Butte would be “the richest hill on earth.”

His pronouncement became a reality. According to the Mining History Association, in 1896 Butte produced 26 percent of the world’s copper supply and 51 percent of the United States’ needs as one smelter alone produced two million pounds of copper every month.

An International Metropolis

Butte is currently home to around 35,000 people, however, Aubrey Jaap, the director of the Butte-Silver Bow Public Archives, says that “(Butte) really peaked before and during WWI.”

By 1917, the population reached 100,000 with approximately 450 mines in operation. Nearly unlimited work opportunities drew immigrants from throughout the world with the note-worthy saying, “Don’t stop in America, go straight to Butte!” There were so many ethnicities that no-smoking signs within the mines were typically displayed in 16 different languages.

Butte was ethnically diverse and bustling with energy. It was a cosmopolitan city when much of Montana was not much more than cow towns. With the abundance of drive and expertise, the architecture of the growing city reflected the ambitions of its residents. International cultures lead to world-class restaurants and active civic organizations. At its height, Butte was a city that never slept.

Hardscrabble Life

This prosperity came with a price as wealth was built on the backs of the miners and their families.

“It wasn’t an easy place to live,” said Jaap. “There were no trees because they needed timber for the mines and to feed the furnaces.” With the smoke and pollution from the continually churning smokestacks, it was the image of industrialization.

“There was noise in town all of the time,” said Jaap who noted residents were accustomed to the constant hum of commerce. “What was scary was when it stopped,” she said because this typically meant a tragedy in the mines.

Deepening Mine Shafts

Initially, mining began with a pick and shovel, with explosives expediting the process while evolving into utilizing a windlass for shallow depths, and then a whim where a horse walked around a pivot to hoist up men and materials. As the mining shafts deepened, headframes, many that still dot the landscape, stood up to 200 feet tall to transport ore and workers sometimes over 5000 feet deep.

It was another world working underground. Extreme conditions took their toll. Jaap noted in the early days the men would emerge from the hot conditions of the mine soaking wet from sweat, water used in dust abatement and natural water within the mine itself. During the winter, temperatures rarely climbed above freezing and often hovered around -40°F. When the men came out of the mine in wet clothing into the bitter cold, they often succumbed to sickness, including pneumonia. This was resolved in later years by a dry room where they could change into dry clothing at the end of their shift.

Men had to work in pairs as a rudimentary safety system. They typically worked 12-hour shifts. Before electricity, candles and oil lamps were used for light.

Initially, the men shoveled all of the material in the carts, and while a man could push a single cart once filled, a horse could pull up to five. Horses and mules spent years in the mines before their own poor health, or death, was their ticket to the upper world once again. This practice continued until pneumatic locomotives, and eventually, electricity supplied the power. The last horse was brought up from the Emma Mine in 1937.

A Dangerous Profession

There were lots of ways for injury or death in this profession. Besides the taxing working conditions, breathing stale air and dust caused a condition called silicosis or “miners consumption.” Constant exposure to heavy metals contributed to cancer and inflammatory diseases and accidents were common.

Working with explosives was also dangerous. After drilling holes, miners placed a stick of dynamite in each using a piece of wood to carefully push it into place. This is where the common phrase, “Tap ‘er light,” came into being. Fuses were grouped 12 to 15 in a bundle. Workers had roughly eight to 14 minutes to get away from the blast zone once it was lit.

Even equipment that was supposed to make life easier could be deadly. The mucking machine, which was brought on board to save the men from shoveling, could decapitate miners.

It’s estimated that over 2,000 men died in the mines.

North Butte Mining Disaster

On June 8, 1917, during the height of production with well over 14,000 men working around the clock to supply the copper needed for World War I, 410 men descended into the Speculator Mine for the night shift. A cable falling to the 2400-ft. level created a cascade of events that left 168 men dead.

Just before midnight, four men lowered into the shaft to retrieve the five-inch diameter electrical cable that was being installed to create a fire alarm system. What they didn’t realize was when the electrical cable fell it tore the protective lead exterior of another nearby cable, exposing the paraffin-coated paper used for insulation. When one of the worker’s carbide lamps accidentally touched the cable, it ignited immediately. The mine shaft became a “mighty geyser,” and the sound of the disaster woke residents. Flames and toxic smoke turned the levels into a smoke-filled maze, killing or trapping nearly half of the men.

Personal Stories

Quick thinking during the disaster saved lives. For example, Mannus Duggan, a 25-year-old nipper (a worker who sharpened and made sure the men had their tools), sealed himself and 25 others behind a bulkhead made of timbers and their own clothing, while J. D. Moore, a shift boss, did the same with seven others. Even though oxygen – and time – ran out for some of the men most of them in these situations survived. Duggan was among them, but he ultimately succumbed to the toxic gases when he returned to the shaft to look for lost companions.

Throughout the ordeal, both men wrote to their wives, including Duggan’s missive: By the time all the men were rounded together Friday night we were all caught in a trap. I suggested we must build a bulkhead. The gas was everywhere. We built a bulkhead and then a second for safety. We could hear rock falling and supposed it to be the rock in the 2400 skip chute. We have rapped on the air pipe continuously since 4 o’clock Saturday morning. No answer. Must be some fire. I realize the hard work ahead of the rescue men. Have not confided my fears to anyone, but welcome death with open arms, as it is the last act we all must pass through, and as it is but natural, it is God’s will. We should have no objection.

A Labor Dispute

The incident ignited a simmering labor dispute. Grievances against the Anaconda Copper Mining Company and conflict with the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), a socialist organization that effectively crushed the unions several years prior, made the timing right for a fight. The Speculator Mine disaster was all it took to incite violence, including lynchings, resulting in calling in federal troops and the passage of the Montana Sedition Act, which clamped down on any speech or actions contrary to the war effort. In the end, workers received few benefits, while the unions never regained their full power.

From Underground to Open Pit Mines

After WWI, underground mining shifted to more expedient open-pit mining. Created in 1954 by the Anaconda Company, the now infamous Berkley Pit, absorbed entire suburbs as the company expanded the operation. When copper prices fell in the early 1980s, the new owner, Atlantic Richfield Company (ARCO) ceased operations. In 1983, they removed equipment and shut off the water pumps, creating the now 1000-foot-deep, highly toxic, lake.

Ironically, the same metal-laden, acidic water that eats metal flooded the world beneath the town and provides an unusual benefit. Jaap said, “Actually, the water preserves (the timbers), but it makes (the mine shafts) inaccessible.”

The Berkley Pit is now a Superfund Site and a must-see point of interest in Butte, but mining still is the heart of the town. Jaap said the Continental Pit, the former location of Columbia Gardens that once provided a green respite for Butte families, is where silver, zinc, and copper are mined.

A lot of things we do today have a cost,” said Jaap. “For Butte, it’s really visible.”

Residents are proud of their heritage of bringing these important minerals to the world. “The Butte people and their families worked really hard and they take pride in it,” said Jaap. And well they should.

This story about the Butte, Montana, previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Amy Grisak. Photos courtesy of the Butte-Silver Bow Archives.

The post Butte, Montana: Copper Mining first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Black diamond refers to both carbonado diamonds and black gem diamonds, they are not a diamond alternative and they are not synthetic diamonds. Carbonado, a rare type of diamond with a polycrystalline structure, is not normally considered a gemstone. Nevertheless, super large diamonds like large, faceted carbonados sell for several million dollars. Black gem diamonds, on the other hand, are a color variety of monocrystalline, or “single-crystal,” diamonds—the familiar stones we see in jewelry stores.

Carbonado Black Diamonds

In 1843, Brazilian placer miners discovered dense, opaque, black pebbles and cobbles that they named “carbonado,” after the Portuguese carbonizado, meaning “carbonized” or “burned” and alluding to their charred appearance. Mineralogists subsequently described carbonado as a previously unknown form of diamond with a polycrystalline structure and consisting of tightly bonded aggregates of randomly arranged diamond microcrystals.

Carbonado had no value until the 1870 introduction of diamond-studded drill bits. With its greater hardness and durability, along with a microcrystalline structure that provided more cutting edges, carbonado’s rock-cutting ability far exceeded that of a monocrystalline diamond.

Industrial demand for carbonado soared and, by 1880, Brazil was mining 70,000 carats (30.9 pounds) per year and selling it to the United States and Europe for $20 per carat. Carbonado-studded drill bits were later used extensively in building the Panama Canal and developing Minnesota’s great open-pit iron mines. Carbonado has now been replaced by synthetic polycrystalline diamond and is no longer mined commercially

The Great Carbonados

Carbonado diamonds are quite rare. Only an estimated three tons have been mined in the past 150 years—almost nothing compared with the 25 tons of monocrystalline diamonds now mined worldwide each year. Despite its scarcity, carbonado has provided many extraordinary specimens.

In 1895, Brazilian placer miner Sérgio Borges de Carvalho recovered a huge carbonado of 3,167 carats (22.34 ounces). Weighing 61 carats more than South Africa’s fabled Cullinan Diamond (monocrystalline), it was the largest diamond of any kind ever found. The “Sérgio Diamond,” named in de Carvalho’s honor, sold for $16,000 ($500,000 in 2023 dollars). Unfortunately, it was broken up into cutting studs for drill bits.

Of the few gems ever cut from Carbonado, the most spectacular is the Enigma Diamond. The world’s largest faceted diamond, the Enigma sold in 2022 in a highly publicized auction for $4.3 million. The preponderance of “fives” in this irregularly cut, 55-facet, 555.55-carat gem is not coincidental: Its previous owner, an Arab tycoon, styled its cut after the ancient Mideastern hamsa amulet, which both Jewish and Arabic traditions associate with the number five.

The Origin of Carbonado

Scientists initially assumed that both polycrystalline and monocrystalline diamonds formed in the extreme heat and pressure of the Earth’s mantle and were later emplaced in surface kimberlite pipes. But carbonado does not occur in association with monocrystalline diamonds.

By the 1970s, researchers had concluded that carbonado’s unusual inclusions indicated not mantle formation, but rather meteoric origin. They also noted that because carbonado in quantity was found only in Bahia, Brazil, and the Ubangi River region of the Central African Republic—and in the same geologic horizons—it had likely fallen to Earth in a single, massive meteoric event when South America and Africa were joined as one landmass.

Many scientists now believe that carbonado formed on exploding red giants (large stars with low surface temperatures) when shock waves compressed carbon into polycrystalline diamonds before hurling it into space where some eventually reached Earth as meteorites.

Black Diamonds

Meanwhile, as scientists continued to debate the origin of carbonado, black monocrystalline diamonds were gaining popularity as faceted gems. Their black color and opacity are caused by numerous tiny inclusions, most often of graphite or amorphous carbon.

Only about 1 in 10,000 monocrystalline diamonds is naturally black. Historically, these stones had no gem value until the 1990s when they began appearing in white gold and platinum settings accompanied by colorless melee diamonds. These black monocrystalline diamonds also began attracting metaphysical interest as stones that provide wearers with power, determination, and inner strength.

Natural vs. Treated

Faceted, natural, black monocrystalline diamonds now sell for about $2,500 per carat. But most black-diamond gems currently being sold started as heavily included, grayish, industrial-grade diamonds. Heating these low-value stones to 1300°C for several hours converts tiny inclusions of amorphous carbon to graphite which absorbs white light and produces nearly opaque, very dark green stones that appear black. Today, loose, heat-treated, faceted black diamonds sell for roughly $300 per carat.

The most celebrated natural, black, monocrystalline diamond gem is the 67.5-carat Black Orlov Diamond. Mined as a 195-carat rough crystal, it was believed to be cursed after three of its owners committed suicide. To break the curse, the gem was cut into three pieces, the largest being the Black Orlov. Mounted in a brooch and surrounded by a circle of 108 small, colorless diamonds, the Black Orlov has been displayed at major museums around the world.

So, whether as polycrystalline carbonado or monocrystalline gems, black diamonds are finally gaining the respect they deserve.

This story about black diamonds previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Steve Voynick.

The post Black Diamonds Gain Respect first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.