Seraphinite Properties

The mica inclusions give the stone wonderful chatoyancy. The inclusions grow at different lengths, the longer ones give that feather appearance. Other times you get shorter growth patterns in rows that give the mystic forest appearance. The radial growth patterns in this stone are more highly sought after and make for beautiful designs in cabochons.

Finding Seraphinite

Although seraphinite is getting rather scarce to find, it is still available for sale at shows and online. Most of the time you can easily see what you’re getting, as the patterns will be quite visible on the outside. If you are looking for certain patterns and a higher grade, buying pre-cut slabs is the way to go. If you have never cut seraphinite before, know there are some pitfalls with this material. It’s soft and can easily break in the trimming or cabbing process. It also has varying hardnesses, so it can tend to undercut, as well as easily chip on the edges.

Cutting to Enhance the Patterns

When getting started on cutting slabs, there is a general direction to cut. Most of the time you will see radial or partial radial sprays at the bottom portion of the stone. That will give you a grasp of what is top and bottom, so you can cut north to south for your slabs. This will yield the best chatoyant patterns in the stone. I would also suggest cutting your slabs a slight bit thicker than the average stone because of its softness.

This gives you greater odds against it breaking in the cabbing process. Once your slabs are cut, many times you will get two predominant patterns for design. The top portion usually has smaller feather patterns that are tight together. The bottom portion will give you more radial sprays and longer feathery designs. Both sections are great to design cabs with but remember that the solid green areas are harder than the mica inclusions, and will tend to undercut. The lighter the color, the softer that portion.

Cabbing Seraphinite

Once your preforms are trimmed out and you are ready to cab, I would suggest a different routine than cabbing agates or jaspers. I like to start on a worn 80-grit steel wheel, or a 140-grit soft resin, as this material tends to grind away super easily and quickly. Use a soft touch to shape your outside design, then move to a 140-grit or even the 280-grit soft resin wheel to dome the top and clean up your edges and girdle on the cab.

Remember, the lighter the color, the softer it is, so beware when trying to cab thin cabs or long pointy cabs, it can break easily!

Once you have completed shaping and doming the cab on the 280-grit wheel, stop and dry it off thoroughly and be sure you have removed all the scratches by this point. With the mica inclusions running in a certain direction, you will easily see if there are any scratches, as they will stand out going against the feathery sprays.

From this point, start polishing gently on the 600-grit wheel, trying not to put too much pressure on the surface to alleviate any unwanted undercutting. Continue to the 1200 grit wheel and end on either the 3k grit or 8k grit wheel. At this point, it will give you a nice glossy finish where no added polishing compounds are needed.

This story about seraphinite previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Russ Kaniuth.

The post Seraphinite – What to Cut first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Jasper

Jasper is found throughout the world. This chalcedony is a cryptocrystalline form of silica. Jasper types of gemstones come in colors ranging from green, red, blue, orange, yellow and brown. The colors are because of impurities such as ash, clay or minerals within the stones. Iron typically creates the reddish hues, while manganese oxide is responsible for blues, and inclusions of iron oxide or the mineral goethite create the yellows.

Many times there are types of gemstones with examples of various inclusions, such as with the bloodstone jasper, where chlorite and pyroxene cause the deep green, while iron is responsible for the red speckling. Jasper’s name is based on the French word “jaspre” which came from the Latin “jaspidem” meaning “speckled stone.” This is fitting because when polished, jasper has a speckled pattern seemingly just below the surface.

Kunzite

The best-known variety of spodumene, kunzite is the pink to purple version of this important mineral that is still sometimes mined for lithium production. Kunzite boasts beautiful pink or purplish hues because of the presence of manganese, while chromium creates the greens of another variety, hiddenite.

A fascinating aspect of kunzite is its pleochroic attributes where it displays different colors, such as a combination of pink, purple and transparent, depending on which way you look through the crystal. This is a key consideration when cutting the gem. It also has phosphorescence, which allows the stone to absorb light and then release it in the dark, as with any of our favorite glow-in-the-dark items. The drawback is excessive exposure to sunlight fades its beautiful colors.

With a Mohs rating of 7, eye-catching colors, and the unique characteristics of pleochroism and phosphorescence, it’s even more intriguing to know that large crystals are possible with the best example being an 880-carat heart-shaped kunzite housed at the Smithsonian.

Lapis Lazuli

The beautiful deep blue lapis lazuli is an example of when a gemstone is not a mineral. Instead, lapis lazuli is a rock consisting of multiple minerals, including lazurite, calcite, pyrite, afghanite and several others.

To be considered true lapis lazuli, the rock has to contain at least 25 percent of the mineral lazurite that lends to the distinct blue coloration. Calcite is usually the next most prevalent mineral which often shows up as white layers or mottling. Pyrite provides the shiny gold flecks in some specimens.

Afghanistan is the hotbed of lapis lazuli. There are records of it being mined in the Badakhshan Province of the northeastern part of the country as early as 7000 B.C. The name is derived from the Arabic word “lazaward” meaning “heaven” along with the Persian term for blue, “lazhuward.” In ancient times, Egyptian women also used powdered lapis as an eye shadow. And even in the 1800s, powdered lapis was used to create ultramarine blue paint used in oil canvas paintings, such as Vincent Van Gogh’s “The Starry Night.”

Malachite

A vibrant green gemstone with distinct parallel banding, malachite is a striking specimen and its popularity for thousands of years is no surprise. Derived from the Greek word meaning “mallows,” this correlates to the deep green of malachite with the color of the mallow plant’s leaves.

The gem color is derived from the copper carbonate hydroxide minerals often found in regions near copper deposits. Because malachite is a fairly malleable oxidized copper ore, it’s possible to extract copper from it using sulfuric acid.

The Egyptians also figured out how to remove the copper by placing powdered malachite in a hot fire, which resulted in tiny spheres of copper as a by-product. They used this copper to make cookware, and razors and eventually created stronger bronze by adding arsenic or tin. They also used finely ground gemstones as a distinctive eye paint. Besides adorning the appearance of ancient Egyptians, malachite is one of the oldest known pigments and was identified in the artwork of Egyptian tombs.

Natrolite

Typically found with slender, needle-like crystals protruding from the crystal, natrolite is an eye-catching specimen. It’s difficult to imagine such a fragile-looking stone cut and polished into impressively faceted gems, although high-quality gems are truly rare. Not surprisingly, it’s sometimes called needle stone.

Natrolite leans toward a colorless appearance but can be found in white, light yellow, green, orange, pink, brown or gray. When it’s placed under either longwave or shortwave ultraviolet light, it glows in yellow, orange and sometimes pale green.

A member of the zeolite group, which are hydrated aluminosilicate minerals, the name comes from the Greek words for soda and stone, “natron” and “lithos.” It was officially named by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth in the early 1800s. Natrolite is found in regions where there are veins of basaltic rocks, along with granite and the igneous rock, gneiss.

Onyx

While onyx and agate are both types of chalcedonies and share many similarities, one way to tell them apart is to look at their banding. Agate sports curved bands and onyx has straight, parallel banding. When many people envision onyx, they think of a black gem but is often found in red, brown or yellow, which is called sardonyx. Red and white layers are usually what is referred to as carnelian onyx, while Nicolo onyx has light blue layers alternating with black.

Since ancient times, artists have created intricately carved cameos. Black onyx grew in popularity during the Victorian Era when mourning jewelry was an integral part of society. After Queen Victoria’s husband Prince Albert passed away in 1861, she and all of the British Empire descended into mourning. Besides onyx, jet, vulcanite and even black enamel were used in the adornments. Many included personal mementos, such as hair, woven into the locket or watch fob.

Peridot

Peridot is the gem variety of the common mineral olivine and one with a unique origination story. Unlike many other minerals that form on the Earth’s surface, peridots are birthed either deep within the Earth’s upper mantle where they are brought to the surface through volcanic activity, or deposited by meteorites.

Because of this relationship with volcanoes, Hawaiian legend claims that peridot symbolizes the tears of Pele, the goddess of volcanoes and fire. It is so intertwined that there are several beaches on the island of Oahu that are made up of green sand that glitters with these tiny green crystals. Its distinct coloration is because of the percentage of iron in the formation of the crystals, yet can vary to the point where the stone looks more yellow, olive or even greenish-brown.

The ancient Egyptians referred to peridots as the “gem of the sun,” and some experts surmise that Cleopatra’s famed emeralds may have actually been peridot gemstones.

Quartz

Quartz might not only be one of the most abundant minerals found on Earth, but it is also possibly one of the most useful as it is found in everything from glass to electronics, and has been critical in the mining industry. One fascinating aspect of quartz crystals is their vibrational ability.

As a piezoelectric material, quartz creates an electrical charge when it’s squeezed. As a result, it vibrates 32,768 times per second, and for nearly a century, quartz crystals have been used in watches, computers, GPS units and a remarkable number of everyday items. Found in several varieties, types of gemstones include rosy quartz, smoky quartz and amethyst, quartz is as diverse as it is beautiful. The coloration differences are often due to natural radiation reacting with specific minerals within the quartz. For instance, iron is responsible for the purple hue of amethyst while aluminum creates the gray of the smoky quartz.

Ruby

The terms “ruby” and “red” are practically synonymous, or at the very least, ruby is often used as an adjective to describe types of gemstones with a particular shade of color. Its name comes from the Latin word for red, “ruber.” Bringing the highest per-carat price of any of the colored stones in the modern market, rubies shine among the corundums, which also include sapphires. Like sapphires, they score high on the Mohs scale ranking just below a diamond.

Pure corundums are colorless, but chromium causes the striking red coloration of rubies. The deeper the color, the more chromium is present. This element also causes rubies to glow under ultraviolet light. Because of rubies’ chemical composition, the first working laser, called the ruby laser, was created in 1960 by Theodore Maiman. One of its first uses was in range-finding equipment, but the technology is used to this day as a light source for medical procedures or high-speed photography.

As this list demonstrates, types of gemstones go well beyond only beautiful objects. The myriad of important day-to-day applications for gemstones gives us a deeper appreciation of what might be considered common gems.

This story about types of gemstones by letter appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Amy Grisak.

The post Types of Gemstones by Letter (J-R) first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

“It is amazing that this small (25 miles long by 10 miles wide) batholith of the Spruce Pine Mining District lying in Mitchell, Avery and Yancey Counties is a world-class mineral deposit, and so important an ingredient to making the products we use daily,” says Alex Glover, whose 45-year career in the mining industry reflects a rock-solid list of geological credentials. “We often take for granted the role minerals play in the quality of life we enjoy today.”

Modern-Day Minerals

The U.S. Geological Survey describes a batholith as a type of igneous rock that forms when magma rises into the earth’s crust but does not erupt onto the surface. But the Spruce Pine, NC, Mining District isn’t just any old mass of cooled magma. The 380-million-year-old feldspar, mica and quartz deposits found in these three neighboring counties run most of our modern-day conveniences.

“Almost everyone uses products every day derived from the Spruce Pine Mining District,” Alex says. “Even more amazing is how it took colliding continents and millions of years to place this valuable resource in western North Carolina.”

“If you came to Mitchell County you wouldn’t have a clue as to the importance of this area to the entire world,” says Mandi Polly, who worked in quartz operations for 21 years before her role as executive director with the Mitchell County Chamber of Commerce.

“Think what would happen if the world couldn’t produce computer chips! This district supplies the production of fiber optic cable, solar components and many products in our daily lives. I honestly don’t think,” she grins, “that the majority of people in this area even realize the significance of our mines!”

Mineral City From the Ground Up

“Spruce Pine, NC, has mining deep in its roots and is known as The Mineral City,” she says. In addition to historic old mines like the Hoot Owl, the region has gem mines and the Mineral Museum of North Carolina. It is host to the NC Mineral and Gem Festival (now in its 64th year) and the 36th annual Grassy Creek Mineral and Gem Show.

A neat local side note she adds is how Spruce Pine Quartz supplies the sand for the Masters Golf Tournament, “because it’s so white and pristine.”

Early Mining Fame

Some of the oldest original mines — the Clarissa, Ray and Sinkhole — are believed to have been resourced hundreds of years earlier by First Nations in search of decorative mica for ceremonial events and, after Massachusetts Bay Colony recognized wampum as currency in 1650, for monetary exchange.

Alex says local lore recounts how word of North American mica mining by Native Peoples drew Hernando DeSoto to Spruce Pine in the 1540s, in search of mineral wealth he presumed would be gold and silver. But the only “silver” DeSoto found was Muscovite mica.

Wedgewood & Spruce Pine, NC

Two centuries later and an ocean away, English ceramics maker Josiah Wedgewood heard about feldspar and kaolin being mined by the Cherokee, from pegmatite deposits in what would become Macon County. The softer (Mohs 6) feldspar, in opaque shades of white to gray to rose, easily broke along flat faces (in a process known as cleavage) in comparison to irregular, curved breaks created by the conchoidal fractures of harder (Mohs 7) quartz.

Wedgewood had five tons of this “Indian clay” shipped to Staffordshire to use in the creamcolored earthenware that so entranced King George III’s wife, Queen Charlotte, that Wedgewood was granted permission to style himself, “Potter to Her Majesty” and call his fine pieces, Queen’s Ware. The feldspar clay had come from what would be incorporated in 1855 as Franklin, North Carolina. It was dubbed the Gem Capital of the World after discoveries like the 64.83-carat Carolina Emperor, the largest emerald ever found (2010) in North America.

Rubies & Sapphires

Baltimore gem prospector William E. Dibbell was a century ahead of his good instincts when it came to the rubies and sapphires the region would one day prove to yield but, at the turn of the 20th century, he did see untapped potential in the residual feldspar being discarded by mica mines like Flat Rock.

So did the Golding Sons ceramic plant in East Liverpool (Ohio), who liked Dibbell’s ceramic-grade feldspar so much that they wanted more, leading to the creation of the Carolina Minerals Company of Penland and the opening of the Deer Park Mine to satisfy the appetites of ceramic plants in Trenton, Wilmington and Liverpool.

The 1940s were a game-changer. Until then most of the work, especially the ore separation of minerals (feldspar, mica, quartz) was done by hand or crude machinery. Between 1944 and 1949, a chemical separation process jointly developed by feldspar mining companies, the Tennessee Valley Authority and North Carolina State University Minerals Research Laboratory, led to a high-capacity process still used today known as ‘Froth Flotation,’ that separates feldspar and quartz as well as mica and iron (mostly garnet) from rock and ore.

Not-So-Hidden Gems – Feldspar

“Modern-day mining methods, research, plant production, safety, and product development have enabled the extraction and use of these high-purity mineral resources from the earth to enhance our quality of life,” says Alex.

It’s that extraordinary purity that makes the natural treasures from Spruce Pine, NC, so valuable.

Feldspar makes up roughly 65% of the igneous pegmatite in Spruce Pine, NC, and is an important source of aluminum, potassium, and sodium for making glass – from windshields and computer screens to baby bottles and light bulbs.

“Feldspar is the most abundant mineral on the earth’s surface and crust, but its purity as an ore is rare,” he says.

Spruce Pine, NC, feldspar has come a long way from Wedgewood ceramic teacups. Today, feldspar serves as a flux to fuse or melt other ceramic ingredients at a lower temperature, cementing the crystalline phases of other ingredients together while imparting improved strength and durability. “Its special qualities allow ceramic manufacture of pottery, plumbing fixtures, electrical insulators, tile, dinnerware, planters, and structural ceramics to name a few.”

Mica in Spruce Pine, NC

If feldspar composes 65% of the local pegmatite, mica accounts for another 10% of deposits. Originally used in heat-resistant glass for wood and coal stoves (isinglass), and insulating World War I and II radio tubes, the same properties are used today as a reinforcing plastics and oil well drilling fluid additive, in specialty component electrical insulation, metallic flake automobile paint and cosmetics.

The flat particle shape of the silver-to-white variety called muscovite mica lends itself to drywall joint compound and sheetrock joint cement.

“Muscovite’s flat particle shape and light color allow it to serve as an anti-shrinking agent,” Alex explains. “It applies as a smooth, damp putty, but because of mica’s flat particle shape, it interlocks the mud as it dries, thus reinforcing a filled area without shrinkage and also serving as a fire retardant within drywall joints.”

In the early years of production, the quartz composing 25% of this pegmatite was treated as discarded waste but now it is the most valuable component of the region’s three major minerals. “Froth Flotation enabled better separation of the three minerals, especially the quartz,” he says, thus ensuring that Spruce Pine Quartz ranks among the most important strategic minerals in the world today. Its lower-purity quartz is used as industrial white sand and valued for use on such fine golf courses as Augusta National Course in Georgia, host of the Masters Tournament. More recently, it has been incorporated into the development of quartz countertops for the home.

Down to the Roots

“It’s important to know that even before computers were a concept, mining was a very important part of Mitchell County’s economy and history,” says Mandi. “The quartz business helped my family as I was growing up. My husband’s work in rocks and sand supports our family. My son-in-law works in the quartz business. So it is definitely supporting future generations!

“As of 2022, according to the NC Department of Commerce, mining corporations are the second-twelfth-largest employers in Mitchell County. The mining companies are not only crucial for supplying many jobs but are also very active in the communities. Many serve on boards, help with local schools, sponsor sports teams and host events, support nonprofits, and give back, through volunteer hours and countless other projects.

“This is where I choose to stay and raise my children and grandchildren. We truly are – all pun intended — a hidden gem. Spruce Pine, NC, hasn’t been called The Mineral City by chance. Because that is who we are, down to our roots.”

This story about the Spruce Pine, NC, mining district previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by L.A. Sokolowski.

The post The Spruce Pine, NC Mining District first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Identifying the Risks of Radioactive Minerals

Understanding which parts of your collection may pose a risk is the first step. You might have just a few individual, radioactive mineral specimens. But some large rocks may also contain an amalgamation of multiple types of potentially radioactive minerals. In addition to these radioactive minerals, there are also daughter products that are created as the result of radioactive decay. Daughter products, such as radium, radon gas and uranium, are themselves radioactive.

According to Alysson Rowan, author of Here Be Dragons or The Care and Feeding of Radioactive Mineral Species, some radioactive minerals may even be hiding in plain sight. “A specimen that doesn’t look very good because it’s not well crystalized — somebody may cut that into a decorative stone and mount it for wearing,” Rowan says. “You can find these things on sale, and there’s no mention of the fact that it is radioactive.”

Based in Holsworthy, England, Rowan is also a former radiation safety worker with extensive training in geology. She continues, “There’s no mention that this is not something that you would want to wear, so, people buy these things and wear them in ignorance.”

Detection Equipment

Because uranium minerals tend to be very colorful, they’re among the most popular with collectors. “The other thing is that there are a lot of them that are fluorescent,” Rowan says. “With uranium minerals, you tend to get greens and yellows, but there are minerals that glow blue, and red, and I think there’s even one that’s now known to fluoresce purple.”

Incidentally, to test the radioactivity of your stash, you’ll want to purchase a handheld radiation detector. “If they’re going somewhere to collect uranium minerals or they expect to find uranium minerals, a handheld ‘Geiger counter’ is a must-have,” Rowan suggests. “Of course, they’re not all Geiger counters now. . . . A lot of them are scintillators which are a lot more sensitive and a lot more durable. They generally show how much radiation they’re detecting either on a meter or on an alphanumeric display.”

You can also find used Geiger counters for sale online. “A lot of people buy them second-hand on eBay,” she says. “The American Civil Defense monitors are very, very popular because there’s a lot of them about.”

Saléeite and autunite are two colorful — and radioactive — minerals. “In bright sunlight, you can see the fluorescence,” Rowan notes. Both are in the bright yellow-green range.

Just don’t get too attached to that autunite, as it will literally disintegrate. “Autunite is what’s known as a metamict,” Rowan explains. “It decays radioactively, and the radiation damages the crystal. Inside a few years, it’s just a pile of dust. . . . And, so, autunite will actually spread all over the place.”

Radiation Effects

Containing that radioactive spread is paramount because the negative effects of radiation on the body are cumulative. In other words? The radiation you absorb builds up over time. You can inadvertently expose yourself to radiation internally by absorbing contaminants through your skin. You can also inhale or ingest radioactive contaminants.

The acute effects of radiation exposure can range from erythema — akin to a deep tissue sunburn — to renal failure. “The uranyl minerals—that is uranium oxide as a radical—are toxic to your kidneys,” Rowan says. “So, that is what you’ve got when you pick up most fluorescent minerals. It’s uranyl phosphates, uranyl nitrates—they are highly toxic.”

Over the long term, exposure to some radioactive compounds can even result in bone cancer and leukemia. In her book, Rowan writes, “Inhaled uranous and thorium compounds, and to a lesser extent the uranyl compounds will result in both toxic and radiation damage to the lung. Long-term effects will include bronchitic and emphysema-like symptoms as well as a range of pulmonary and pleural cancers.”

Smoke Alarm

Keeping cigarettes, incense, and other smoky stuff away from radioactive specimens is especially important.

For safety’s sake, you should never eat or drink while handling radioactive minerals. Applying a quick smidge of lip balm’s another no-no. And smoking is right out, too.

“The thing about smoking is one thing that you do is that you handle the rock and you put your cigarette to your mouth and you’ve immediately got rock dust on your lips,” says Alysson Rowan, the author of Here Be Dragons or The Care and Feeding of Radioactive Mineral Species.

What’s more, let’s say some of your specimens contain uranium. As uranium goes through its multiple stages of decay, it eventually releases radioactive radon daughter products and radon gas. “The airborne activity from radon daughters and radon gas itself will attach themselves to smoke,” Rowan continues. “So, when you re-inhale smoke, you’re inhaling the radioactive contaminants in the atmosphere.”

In her work, Rowan writes, “It has been noted that the presence of blue smoke from cigarettes (the plume that rises from the burning tobacco) collects the radioactive radon daughter products more surely than any other means of concentration. This means that the spent smoke you breathe in a high radon concentration area is bringing those radioactive materials into your lungs in a form which tends to remain inside your body.” Such radiation exposure in the human body is cumulative. Rather than dissipate, the radiation exposure adds up. “The consensus of scientific opinion is that a given dose from radon is possibly 10 or 15 times as dangerous to a smoker as to a nonsmoker,” Rowan notes. To mitigate this risk, never smoke in areas where you keep radioactive specimens.

Minimizing Exposure

Although different minerals pose differing degrees of risk, if you are pregnant, you should avoid contact with radioactive minerals altogether. As for young children? “Before puberty, we are a lot more susceptible to radiation damage because of the rapid cell division,” Rowan says. “Children should not be around. . . radioactive minerals more than absolutely necessary for their study.”

There are several precautions you can take to minimize your overall radiation exposure and still appreciate the radioactive specimens in your collection. Besides the degree to which a mineral is radioactive, the amount of the mineral in question matters as well as the cumulative amount of time that you spend in direct contact with it.

“If you sit with a pound of uraninite using it as a paperweight on your desk, that is going to give you a problem eventually,” Rowan maintains. “If, on the other hand, you have that pound of uraninite and it’s in a lead-acrylic case, that reduces the dose rate and, therefore, it’s not quite the same problem.”

Display Do’s and Don’ts

“You also have to take into account how far you are from that specimen,” Rowan adds.

When you increase the distance between yourself and the specimen, you decrease your potential radiation dose. Adding shielding materials like lead, wood or glass can further reduce your radiation exposure.

“For the most part, you put [your collection] on display in a cabinet,” she says. “The idea is that you’re keeping dust off of your specimens, but you’re keeping dust from the specimens fixed.”

Regarding those uranium-rich minerals, keep in mind that uranium decays into radium which, in turn, will decay into radon gas. Because this heavy, radioactive gas can easily migrate, you should air out your uranium mineral display cases periodically. “I’ve done this with my own cabinet,” Rowan says. “You open the cabinet and stick your [radiation] meter in and the radiation count goes up. And, over about half an hour, the count rate goes right down, because the radon daughters in there only have a short half-life.”

Still, she cautions, “If you’re a serious uranium collector, then it’s probably a good idea to have vented cabinets—venting to the outside world.”

Also, never store or display uranium minerals in a basement. “Radon gas is an awful lot denser than air,” Rowan explains. “It’s a big atom and it will hang around for a couple of weeks.”

Handling How-To’s

If you do need to handle a radioactive mineral specimen, don’t dally. “If you’re working with it for too long, that’s all additional exposure,” Rowan says. “So, the amount of time that you’re in contact with the rock, you need to minimize it. And you need to make sure that you don’t spread contamination everywhere.”

To that end, she suggests wearing protective clothing and disposable gloves and protecting your work surface with a disposable covering. Washing carefully with soap and water is also key. “If you handle a radioactive rock, you’ve got radioactive rock dust on your fingers and you’ve got to wash it off,” Rowan says.

Finally, to prevent ingestion or inhalation of radioactive contaminants, never eat, drink or smoke when working with radioactive minerals, and, Rowan concludes, “Don’t be paranoid, but do take care.”

This story about radioactive minerals appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Susan M. Brackney.

The post What are Radioactive Minerals? first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

The Stone Age

The Stone Age lasted until the end of the Neolithic era when we learned to start using metals and transitioned into the Bronze Age. The Stone Age is three distinct periods recognized by researchers, known as the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic eras. The suffix lithic means “stone.”

Most of the Stone Age occurred within the Ice Age. Early humans hunted the Megafauna of this period such as saber-toothed cats, mammoths, mastodons, giant sloths, giant bison and relatives of the modern deer. Weapons were needed to kill these animals for food, to take their hides for clothes, warmth and protective structures, and to use their bones for numerous purposes.

The Stone Age Eras

The longest of the Stone Age eras was the first. The Paleolithic era lasted just shy of 2.5 million years, ending between 11700 and 9600 BCE. The stone tools and weapons from this era are known as Oldowan and Acheulean. Several cave paintings date back to this era and depict scenes of stone weapons. The end of this period coincides with the end of the ice age.

Middle Stone Age

Dates for the Middle Stone Age, or the Mesolithic era, are harder to pin down. This period represented an advancement in weapon and tool-making skills and is greatly regional since there was not a whole lot of exchanging of ideas and technologies. In some parts of the world, it began as late as 8,000 BCE. Regardless of the exact dates, it was the shortest of the three eras. It is notable though for many advancements in weapon and tool-making skills. Weapons associated with this era were chisel-pointed burins (akin to awls), blades and backed knives, scrapers, cutting tools known as tranchet adzes and multi-purpose tools.

Neolithic Era

The Neolithic era, also the last era, began as early as 8,000 BCE in some parts of the world and ended between 3,000 and 2,700 BCE. This was the last period where humans relied exclusively on stone, bone, antler, or wood weapons and started experimenting with metals. Stonehenge dates back to this period. Agriculture became more prominent during this time and a lot of stone weapons and tools were used for digging and farming. This period saw the rise or continued improvements to adzes, arrows, axes, blades, chisels, and other dual-purpose tools used for digging and striking.

Axes and Knife-like Weapons

Axes were broadly used throughout much of the Stone Age. Axes were useful in close combat, good for clearing a path while in pursuit of their target, but even more so when preparing a kill to be eaten. As the millennia progressed, so too did the shape and sharpness of the stone axes our forebears made. By about 320,000 years ago, axes had evolved from larger, fist-sized axes, to smaller and more sophisticated blades and points. A specific type of ax was developed, known as a “chopper.” This was used for more detailed work such as dividing up meat or cutting into skin and fur.

Blades and scrapers were crafted from smaller, sharper stones than those used typically for axes. There was no uniformity in their overall size or weight. A tribe, clan or family might have several different sizes to be used as each circumstance dictated. When made of obsidian, these blades were especially sharp. As time went forward, and agriculture developed, these would be affixed to longer sticks and become the world’s first scythes.

Projectile Points

Projectile points were used for arrows, spears and harpoons. The traditional arrowhead is among this group. Projectile points were the premium weapons for hunting. Early humans located near water utilized this technology to make harpoons for hunting fish and larger marine life. Evidence suggests that early mankind was adept enough at using harpoons, they could spear larger fish, including swordfish and whales. Rope was attached to the harpoon shaft so the kill could be pulled to shore.

As soon as early humans learned how to create composite tools, they affixed sharpened, triangularly pointed stones onto the end of a wooden shaft and adhered them with sinew or plant fibers. As the handle part of these composite tools has long since decomposed, it can be difficult to know whether a projectile was affixed to an arrow or a spear, so researchers do not make that distinction.

Around 300,000 years ago, humans began to adhere projectile points to sticks via a method known as hafting. This allowed the pointed stone and stick to be a singular weapon, much less cumbersome than previous methods. Skilled weapons makers would use fire and heat to perfect this attachment. Initially, these would have been used for jabbing, until the advent of the Atlatl — a device that evolved into the bow. It acted as an extension of the arm and allowed projectiles to be hurled much farther and faster with more accuracy.

Slingstones

An overlooked category of stone weapons is the sling stone. This is probably because not all sling stones were honed to a particular size or shape. They were potentially used in the form they were found. These first appeared late in the Stone Age. Piles of sculpted, similarly-sized, oval or oblong rocks with pointed ends have been found in parts of the Middle East.

When used in their found form, these are the most rudimentary of weapons. When formed with pointed ends into roughly uniform size, and intended to be flung with some kind of a sling, this evidences great thought and advancement. This allowed for greater accuracy because a formal size could be used for practice. Besides their obvious use in combat or hunting, these sling stones are also thought to have been used to aid herders when controlling predators and steering a flock. Scientists assume this because sling stones are often found in areas where flocks were located.

Multi-Functional Tools & Weapons

As the Stone Age came to a close, early humans became adept at making multi-use weaponry. This makes sense as it reduced the number of things to carry and is evidence of the evolution of stone weapon making. A single stone weapon/tool from the Mesolithic could simultaneously have one side that was used as a knife, one side as a hammer or striking surface, and one side as a scraper. As farming arose, the need to dig into the soil and clear land became important as well.

It was not uncommon for some skilled tool and weapon makers to have actual tool kits of stones to do a variety of tasks. Regional differences have been found suggesting these skills were passed down and that communities had distinct identities or cultures.

This story about the ancient artifacts previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Chris Bond.

The post Ancient Artifacts: Rocks as Weapons first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Memento Mori

A skull is a common motif for the Latin phrase, “Remember you will die” and the ancient practice of reflecting on one’s mortality, going back to the time of Socrates, who is said to have believed the only proper practice of philosophy was “about nothing else but dying and being dead.”

Well, that’s no fun. Even at Halloween. Thank goodness for Canadian actor, comedian, filmmaker, musician and producer, Dan Aykroyd, and world-renowned American portrait and landscape artist, John Alexander. They mastered mixing good taste, good spirits and Herkimer diamonds into a trio of ultra-premium vodkas, in bottles sure to encourage philosophical musings, called Crystal Head.

Clearly Inspired

“The bottle was designed by creative people with the creative spirit in mind, “ says Dana Miller of the New York City-based KLG Public Relations representing Crystal Head Vodka. “Dan and John designed the skull-shaped bottle as a symbol of life, reflecting power and enlightenment. Creativity is at the heart of Crystal Head, with a desire to inspire those who think differently and encourage their creative pursuits.”

Each bottle is the result of using the highest quality ingredients and water from Canada’s eastern province of Newfoundland to produce three additive-free vodka expressions: Original (locally sourced Canadian corn), Aurora (English wheat) and Onyx (Blue Weber Agave sourced from a single farm in Mexico). The origin story starts around 2007 when Aykroyd was bedeviled by an inability to find additive-free vodka spirits to enjoy. So the three-time Ghostbuster decided to make his own.

Filtering the Vodka

After the vodka is distilled four times into a neutral grain spirit and blended with pristine provincial water, the seven-time filtration process includes a final series of three filtrations through layers of the semi-precious crystals found almost exclusively in central New York State: Herkimer diamonds.

The result is a spirit as clear and colorless as the natural gems, with a silky smooth taste and a wraithlike wafting of neutral grain aromas with hints of citrus.

“Aykroyd’s process of distilling quadruple times, and filtering seven times, with the final three through Herkimer crystals, makes this vodka easy drinking. It’s slightly sweet and smooth, and offers a hint of vanilla,” reviewed Jill Weinlein in 2020 for JustLuxe.com.

Three final filtrations through Herks also craft Crystal Head’s Aurora, which uses a different grain to produce drier, bolder vodka with hints of anise and peppercorn, and the bottle’s iridescent metalized finish is described as a “tribute to this natural wonder of the world.”

This stark reminder of mortality has evolved into an artful tribute. Crystal Head Vodka celebrated its 10th anniversary with a John Alexander Artist Series Halloween Limited Edition bottle (since sold out at about $700 for a No.1 bottle).

Legends in the Making

Aykroyd’s collaboration with Alexander (whose works are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Corcoran, and Smithsonian Museums) began with a shared interest in a Mesoamerican legend about 13 crystal skulls before filtering down to natural crystals almost as legendary in their own right.

What is true is that ancient solid crystal skulls exist. Yes, just like Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull. Legend has it that 13 (or 52, as in four sets of 13) of these powerful transmitters of energy are destined to reunite in a circle — a dozen heads, plus one in the center – at a psychically profound cosmic juncture in the human experience.

How Many Skulls?

Surrounding that supernatural speculation, National Geographic science writers Richard A. Lovett and Scot Hoffman add, “There are perhaps a dozen of these rare crystal skulls in private and public collections. Some are crystal clear, others of smoky or rose-colored quartz. Some are actual human size and of very fine detail, while others are smaller and less refined.”

“Thirteen of these polished skulls have been found on our planet,” Aykroyd said in a 2011 interview. “Eight are in the possession of individuals and institutions. Five are missing. Of the eight, each one is unique. Some are green, orange, cloudy and crystal clear.

They are believed to be thousands of years old and appear to have been carved over several hundred years but don’t bear any tool marks. Their very construction defies common logic.”

Attracting Positive Energy

What is clear is that a belief in such crystal figurines to attract positive energy and enlightenment inspired both actor and artist to create Crystal Head as the ultimate vessel for an additive-free, “pure spirit” vodka.

Bruni Glass of Milan, Italy, manufacturers of the bottle, seem to agree. Meanwhile, 300 million years earlier, crystals destined to become ‘spirit stones’ for early North American nations were busy forming.

About Herkimer Diamonds

One of seven rare gems and minerals found in New York State, Herkimer County diamonds, or simply, Herks, belong to the same geologic region of the Mohawk Valley made famous in The Last of the Mohicans. Here ancient dolostone and limestone rock, porous enough to allow mineral – and silicon-bearing fluids to flow through, seeped into a massive network of tectonic fissures and fault lines.

Unlike most quartz found in igneous rock, nascent Herks exhibit an antipathy to attachment, thriving instead in free-floating pockets of liquid inside fault line cavities, or vugs. The results of such disconnection to a host rock are doubly terminated hexagonal quartz crystals, including barbells and scepters.

Herk Facts

Prized for their innate beauty, Herks range from water-clear to smoky black and are purported to have abilities, as holistic tools, to receive and transmit energy. Many people head to this region today to hunt for Herkimer diamonds.

Early Mohawk peoples referred to themselves as Kanyenkehaka, or ‘People of the Crystals,’ says Larry Michon, president of Northern Berkshire Mineral Club (NBMC), and the valley where they lived was called Kayenkehaka or ‘The Place of Crystals.’

The “diamonds” (a 7 on the Mohs scale) were so prevalent that early settlers found them in stream sediments and plowed fields and, according to Schiffer Publishing’s Collectors’ Guide to Herkimer Diamonds (2014), “immediately held them in high esteem.”

Until the 1600s, when European-crafted glass beads usurped the sparkling crystals in New World popularity, they were traded among neighboring villages, used to make tools, and crafted into amulets. Now, Herkimer diamonds can add ‘vodka filtration’ to their resumé.

Cold Comfort 1 ½ oz. Crystal Head Vodka 1 oz. Dark Rum 4 oz. Apple Cider 1 Cinnamon Stick Add Crystal Head Vodka, dark rum and apple cider in a cocktail shaker with ice. Shake vigorously for 10-15 seconds. Strain into a glass with ice. Garnish with cinnamon stick, finely grated cinnamon and thinly sliced apple.

Through the Glass, Darkly

An appreciation for the power of gemstones to potentially imbue metaphysical properties led Crystal Head Vodka to work with a second stone: onyx.

According to the International Gem Society (IGS), this variety of chalcedony has a mystical association with capturing and containing demons or imps.4Scott Cunningham’s Encyclopedia of Crystal, Gem & Metal Magic also refers to onyx as useful for temporarily containing energy of any kind and the blackness of the stone allows easier access to the subconscious mind.

Sounds like a perfect container for a spooky season’s spirits. Crystal Head describes Onyx, one of the first commercially available agave-based vodkas, and its luxurious glossy black bottle with matching crest debossed cap as, “a celebration of the powerful, warrior crystal.”

“The story behind Crystal Head is one of positive spiritual energy,” Aykroyd has said and, thanks now to Herkimer diamonds, skulls are more than memento mori. They carry good gemstone energy and, like the ancient crystal legend, become “symbols of enlightenment and hope for a better future.” We’ll drink to that.

This story about Herkimer diamonds and Crystal Head vodka appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by L.A. Sokolowski.

The post Herkimer Diamonds & Crystal Head Vodka first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Purchasing Ghost Fire Agate

Since this is a new material, it’s not readily available everywhere just yet, it can be found mostly on Facebook in some of the rock sales forums. When buying ghost fire agate, it’s best to buy from pictures that show at least one side faced, or cut in half, so that you can see what you are getting inside. This material has a great deal of matrix on the outside, and a greater portion inside. It’s best to see how much agate is there before committing to a price that might not yield enough usable agate area to cab since it’s purchased by the pound.

Slabbing Ghost Fire Agate

When starting to slab this material, I cut from two sides, north and west. This way I could see if there were drusy pockets or completely agate-filled nodules. I was able to choose which patterns I liked best. There is no definitive direction to load the stone in the vice, as there are no north-to-south types of patterns in this stone. Start off with the flat sides held tight in the vice. Once you get it cut, if there are large areas of the matrix in the center, I like to cut through them, and downsize the larger stones, so that I can cut smaller ones on a 10-inch trim saw. That way it’s much easier to switch directions with each slab cut, instead of continually loading a vice on the larger saws.

Once your slabs are cut, and it’s time to draw preform designs, you can include some of the matrix that’s still solid enough to cab and not worry about undercutting too much. I have noticed that the plumes grow from areas of the matrix, so I designed them in a way that the matrix is used as a partial framing of the cab. Other times, you can run into patches of beautiful purple and blue agate and isolate that as your cab. The other pitfall to look out for is the calcite that seems to border some of these areas. It’s much softer than the agate and will undercut fairly easily, especially if it’s on the edge of your cab.

Cabbing & Finishing

The cabbing process is fairly routine to most agates, but there are still several ways you can go to obtain the same results. Most lapidaries use a 6-diamond grit wheel setup. For those who still have, or use silicon carbide belts on a poly arbor, they seem to work well in the beginning stages as long as they are on two separate machines, and you rinse the cab off before going back to diamond grit, to keep from contaminating the machine with diamond wheels.

Start shaping and doming on the 80-grit steel diamond wheel. Once you have that portion done, you can continue to a 140 soft resin diamond wheel, or switch to a poly arbor set up, with 100 and 220 silicon carbide belts. The 100 will quickly smooth out the cab and remove all the deep scratches from the 80-grit. The 220 will completely remove any remaining scratches, making it quick and easy to finish the rest of the way on the diamond wheels, starting back on the 600, and all the way up to the 14k.

This story about ghost fire agate previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Russ Kaniuth.

The post Ghost Fire Agate: What to Cut first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

Why Hand Polish?

Hand polishing is something even the most novice and/or youngest rockhound can easily do. It requires only a few materials, doesn’t cost much and results in beautifully polished stones. Some people find the rhythmic motion of hand polishing to be relaxing, offering almost a Zen-like experience. Using the Mohs Scale of Hardness, softer stones like turquoise and amber work best for hand polishing. These stones often don’t fare well in a tumbler anyway, which is one more reason to polish them by hand. 

How to Polish Rocks

Step 1

Start by cleaning the rock(s) by hand. Fill a small bucket with hot, soapy water to clean off dirt. If the stone has a lot of crevices or stubborn residue, an old toothbrush works wonders. Once the rock is thoroughly cleaned, rinse off the soap, then throw out the soapy water and refill the bucket with clean water to use throughout the process.

Step 2

Round the corners and do some rough shaping with 220-grit sandpaper. Begin by moistening the sandpaper and placing it grit-side up on a cutting board or other hard, flat surface. Wet the rock, hold it in your dominant hand and begin rubbing it along the sandpaper to remove the hard edges. Continuously wet the rock to remove fine particles and continue the sanding process until the edges become smooth and rounded or you achieve the desired shape.

To shape and polish harder substances, opt for something coarser. Some people begin with an 80-grit, but sandpaper this coarse shouldn’t be used on softer stones because it could add more scratches than remove. A quick reminder – the lower the number, the coarser the sandpaper.

Step 3

Refine the shape and remove heavy scratches with 500-grit sandpaper. Moving up to finer sandpaper helps remove significant scratches and helps further refine the shape. Keep the rock wet throughout the sanding process for better results.

Step 4

Remove lighter scratches and begin polishing with 1200-grit sandpaper. Using extra-fine sandpaper buffs out tiny scratches on the stone’s surface. The shine will start forming during this step. Make sure to keep the rock wet, rinsing it often to expose anything that’s been missed. 

Step 5

Dampen a square of thick cloth, preferably denim or similar material, and add a good dab of toothpaste. Work the stone through the toothpaste and over the fabric to create a beautiful luster. Depending on the stone, add more toothpaste several times until the desired shine is achieved.

“There are lots of polishing compounds out there,” said Allen McGhee, long-time rockhound and hand polisher. “But I’ve found that toothpaste works just as well, and it’s cheaper. Pretty much any toothpaste works, so don’t buy the high-priced ones.”

Step 6

Rinse off the toothpaste and coat the newly polished stone with mineral oil or a commercial rock polish to bring out the luster. Once the rock dries, it’s ready to show off.

Augmenting with a Dremel

A Dremel is a popular motorized rotary tool that’s handy for grinding and smoothing sharp edges and completing extensive shaping of hard stones, especially those with lots of crevices.

“You can shape and polish rocks and gems faster with a Dremel if you want,” said McGhee. “They make heads for them with all three levels of grit you need.”

When using a Dremel, protective eyewear is a must. Even small chips can damage an eye. Gloves should be used to protect hands. Sharp edges on the rock and the rotating tip of the Dremel can break the skin. Wearing a mask prevents inhaling the tiny particles coming off the rock as it is ground. 

Using a Dremel comes down to personal preference. Some prefer a more natural shape, so they do very little shaping but want to give their rocks a nice bit of shine. Alternately, a Dremel comes in handy for a perfectly smooth and/or rounded stone or for harder rocks that will take a long time to smooth by hand. 

Tumbling Vs. Hand Polishing

Many people inadvertently think rock tumblers offer the fastest way to polish rocks. In reality, rock tumbling is a lengthy process that generally takes anywhere from several days to several weeks. The larger and harder the rocks, the more time tumbling takes. Hand polishing offers a quick turnaround for softer rocks. 

On the other hand, rock tumbling is less labor-intensive since the machine does all the hard work.

Merits of Polishing Rocks by Hand

Although hand polishing can be time-consuming based on the hardness of the rock, it gives more control over the finished product. This control can be especially important if the final result will impact the quality, value and/or overall appearance of a rare or expensive rock or gem. Hand polishing can also give a desirable sense of accomplishment. 

This story about how to polish rocks previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Moira K. McGhee.

The post How to Polish Rocks by Hand first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

San Diego Natural History Museum

At the famous Balboa Park in San Diego, just south of the San Diego Mineral and Gem Society & Museum, is the San Diego Natural History Museum — or the “Nat” as the locals call it. The San Diego Natural History Museum is one of the most significant natural history museums in the country.

The San Diego Society of Natural History dates to 1874. In 1917, the San Diego Mineral and Gem Society purchased a vacant building from the 1915 Panama-California Exposition. Later, a new building was commissioned to architect William Templeton Johnson to fit the museum’s expanding needs. The new museum opened in 1933 serving visitors for decades, before undergoing a significant renovation. In 2001, after a nine-year and $38 million capital campaign, the museum reopened its doors. The major renovation added 90,000 square feet, more than doubling the museum’s size.

A Rich Mining History

San Diego County’s pegmatite mines are famous for their pink elbaite tourmalines and green and blue tourmalines. The Pala Gem district, near the town of Pala, is also renowned for its other pegmatite minerals – quartz, feldspar, garnet, lepidolite, morganite, aquamarine, and kunzite. Since the second half of the 19th century, the mines were worked with lithium-bearing lepidolite being the primary target. Then, in 1898, pink tourmaline was found at the Himalaya Mine, and later at the Stewart Mine.

Mining Pink Tourmaline

Pink tourmaline’s beauty attracted a far-away royal who became a patron, the Empress Dowager Tzu-Hsi (pronounced “Tsoo Shee”), or Cixi of China. The craze for pink tourmaline took place at the turn of the 20th century, and Tiffany’s & Co. facilitated the export. Between 1902 and the Dowager’s death in 1911, 120 tons of tourmaline were mind, with the majority sent to China. The beginning of the Chinese revolution and the abdication of her son, Emperor Puyi, in 1912, and the onset of World War I caused the mines to go dormant.

In 1969 the Pala Stewart mine hit a new tourmaline find and the Tourmaline Queen mine produced the most famous blue-cap pink tourmaline specimens, some with peach-colored morganite attached.

Finding Kunzite

Another famous gem discovered within the same pegmatite mines was kunzite. This mineral is the pale purple/pink variety of spodumene. When the early specimens were found, they were sent to George F. Kunz, a gemologist at Tiffany’s, who identified the mineral and named it after himself.

Pink Tourmaline @ the Oceanview Gem Mine

Today beautiful tourmaline and kunzite are mined at the Oceanview Gem Mine. Besides the daily underground mine operations and pursuit of great minerals, the mine is open to the public for fee-digging.

The mine is located east of Pala township, in San Diego County, and has been owned, since 2000, by Jeff Swanger. The screening process involves Swanger and his team bringing out gem-bearing material blasted from inside the mine and depositing it on a pile in the center of a cleared-out area. There are tables, tubs with water, and screens, where visitors can screen for gems, mostly kunzite and quartz, and some tourmaline specimens. Fee digging starts at 11 a.m. and ends at 3 p.m., on Thursday, Saturday and Sunday. Reservations are required to participate in fee digging.

Depending on your expertise and luck, you may come away with some excellent specimens if you visit.

Himalaya Tourmaline Mine

Another spot in the area, also open for fee-digging is the Himalaya tourmaline mine, owned by High Desert Gems & Minerals. The mine is located near Santa Ysabel at Lake Henshaw. It is open Thursday through Sunday, and again, you keep all you find.

Additionally, the museum’s fossil collection includes the Cerutti Mastodon — a selection of 130,000-year-old preserved mastodon bones, molars, and tusks. Another exciting part of the collection is the Fossil Mysteries, which showcases 75 million years of southern California and Baja California fossil history.

This story about pink tourmaline previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Helen Serras-Herman.

The post Pink Tourmaline & Fossils in San Diego first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.

As it was constructed in phases over thousands of years, it is likely to have served many purposes. Built of Sarsen, a type of sandstone, and an array of igneous rocks generically called “Bluestone,” this arrangement is thought to have begun being built at the end of the Stone Age, around 5,000 years ago. Evidence of additions and alterations as recently as 2,000 BCE show that it remained a work in progress for some time.

There are thousands of sites around the world that can be considered to be stone circles of one form or another. In some cases, the origin and purpose are known or understood, and in many if not most others, there remains some mystery. Some sites are potentially examples of nature depositing stones in a circular-like fashion, while others may be the work of hoaxes. Nonetheless, there are numerous examples of stone, and even wood circles that were placed or constructed by our ancestors for myriad purposes.

Stonehenge Replicas

Stonehenge is hardly the only example of man-made, circular arrangements of monoliths. The British Isles are littered with them, as are many other sites throughout the world. Most are thought to be some kind of astronomical calendars or ritual sites. There are also numerous replicas of Stonehenge, with varying degrees of accuracy and whimsy.

Mimicry and flattery aside, the world abounds in replicas of Stonehenge. Many attempt to be true to the dimensions and scale of the original. Some are built of stone, while others are made of much lighter-weight material. These can be found on both public and private lands, on the campuses of institutions, and even in some backyards.

In 1918, a World War I concrete monument was built in the state of Washington, known as the Maryhill Stonehenge. It was designed to look like Stonehenge is presumed to have looked at the time of its construction. In 2004, another installation, this time on the campus of the University of Texas of the Permian Basin, was constructed to be of similar size, shape and orientation of the original formation in England. At another college campus, Missouri S&T, a half-scale replica of Stonehenge, built out of granite was installed. The world’s only “exact” replica of Stonehenge, known as “Esperance Stonehenge” was made of granite and built in Western Australia. It opened to tourists in 2011.

Several replicas have been made of lightweight materials such as foam and fiberglass. Foamhenge in Virginia is full-sized and astronomically aligned. A similarly built full-sized replica in Alabama (Bamahenge) was made of fiberglass. In 2005, a life-size replica of Stonehenge (British Foamhenge) was made for British television, built from carpet roll tubes and polystyrene. These have been placed in storage, with no known plan to display them again.

The world’s smallest, yet to-scale replica of Stonehenge was constructed at the National University of Singapore. This 3-D replica is built of silicone and measures just 80 micrometers (.003 inches) in diameter and is referred to as a Stonehenge microstructure. Two other replicas of note are a full-sized limestone Stonehenge replica built on private land in Fortine, Montana, and Stonehenge Aotearoa, in New Zealand which aligns with astronomy seen from the Antipodes.

Stonehenge “Tributes”

Replicas of Stonehenge built of various materials, intended as parodies or art abound. These structures have been made of everything from cars, appliances, phone booths, straw bales and even toilets. Carhenge, built in 1987, in Nebraska is one of the better-known tributes. In Ontario, Canada, one can visit Strawhenge. Phonehenge can be found in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, made up of retired British phone booths. The end of the Cold War saw the creation of Tankhenge in Berlin, made of Soviet-era tanks. Truckhenge, in Topeka, Kansas, is a farm art installation made of antique trucks jutting out of the ground.

Bladehenge is a piece of public art, located about two miles from the actual Stonehenge. Made up of propellers and turbines, it was installed at Solstice Park in 2013. Steel Henge, located in another UK park, is made up of large iron ingots.

Many Stonehenge-like installations have been temporary, built for festivals like Burning Man or the Glastonbury Festival. These have included Strawhenge, Mudhenge and Twinkiehenge. In 2007, renowned graffiti artist Banksy, designed and installed a Stonehenge-like structure made out of portable toilets. Still, other temporary henges have moved around on tour. In 2012, an inflatable Stonehenge “bouncy castle” called “Sacrilege” was displayed around London and then on to other venues internationally.

Other short-lived “henges” have been removed because of zoning violations or weather. These include Phonehenge West in Los Angeles, and Fridgehenge in New Mexico (a Stonehenge tribute built from refrigerators does still stand in Hamilton, New Zealand). Numerous “snowhenges” have been built all over the world, that melt in the subsequent spring.

Other Intentional Solar Alignments

Not all nods to Stonehenge are deliberate copies of the famed stone circle. Many modern cities have structures that are designed to align with astronomical events. One can debate whether Stonehenge inspired any or all of these, but their purpose is nonetheless intended to feature or exist symbiotically with astronomical phenomena. These range from public sculpture to architecture, to city planning.

In North Dakota, a 2005 work of art known as Mystical Horizons, serves as a solar calendar. It consists of variously-sized granite walls. The Armed Forces Memorial in Staffordshire, UK, aligns perfectly with the sun to illuminate its center at 11 a.m. on Armistice Day to mark the end of World War I. At MIT’s Infinite Corridor, the sun shines in the center of the hallway exactly twice each year on the equinoxes. This intentional confluence has been dubbed “MITHenge.”

Urban planning examples include England’s Box Tunnel which aligns with the sun, not on any date of solar significance, but the birthday of famed English Civil Engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel. In Raleigh, North Carolina, the street grids are aligned with the sun to form what locals call “Raleighhenge.” More famously though, is Manhattanhenge in New York City. The sun aligns with the street grids on Manhattan Isle such that the rising sun in December and January, as well as the setting sun in May and July, comport with the street grid lines.

Other Places to See Stone Circles Around the World:

1. Syria is home to the oldest stone circle on this list, boasting the Rujm el-Hiri, a series of concentric circles which archaeologists date back to the early Bronze Age almost 5,000 years ago. The ?yu Stone Circles are almost as old, up to 4,000 years, and a series of concentric circles in Japan.

2. In northern Africa, in Morocco is the Mrouza stone circle. Comprising 167 stones, this arrangement dates back as far as the 5th century BCE.

3. Located in Brazil, is the so-called “Amazon Stonehenge” or “Tropical Stonehenge.” This pre-Columbian monolith is laid out in a circle and is thought to have been used for rituals and as a calendar much like Stonehenge.

4. Though not always circles, Australia has numerous examples of Aboriginal stone arrangements. Two of the largest are in the state of Victoria. These include the Carisbrook stone arrangement and the Kuyang/Lake Bolac stone arrangement.

5. Outside o f the United Kingdom and Ireland, there are other European sites with stone circles. In Bulgaria, there is the Dolni Glavanak Cromlech, an oval design, dating between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE. The “Polish Stonehenge,” in Poland, is the second largest arrangement of stones in Europe, comprising 12 circles, dating back to the first or second century CE.

This story about Stonehenge alternatives previously appeared in Rock & Gem magazine. Click here to subscribe. Story by Chris Bond.

The post Stonehenge Alternatives to Explore first appeared on Rock & Gem Magazine.